Select Bibliography and Text Notes

The following is far from an exhaustive list of relevant publications. Many of the works cited have extensive bibliographies that can be consulted by those who wish to follow up specific topics in more detail.

General

One of the best introductions to the Roman world remains F. Millar’s The Roman Empire and its Neighbours, second edition, London-New York, 1981, which approaches the subject from a provincial perspective. Also influential and important: P. Garnsey and R. Saller’s The Roman Empire. Economy, Society and Culture, London, 1987. A scholarly, succinct and highly readable introduction to the early empire is M. Goodman’s The Roman World, 44 BC – AD 180, London, 1997. An excellent and detailed introduction to the eastern empire is M. Sartre’s L’Orient romain. Provinces et sociétés provinciales en Méditerranée orientale d’Auguste aux Sévères, Paris, 1991; and note also the collection of essays in S. E. Alcock (ed.), The Early Roman Empire in the East, Oxford, 1997. For the later empire see A. H. M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire, Oxford, 1964; P. Brown, The World of Late Antiquity, London, 1971; and especially the works by A. Cameron, The Later Roman Empire (AD 284-430), London, 1993; and The Mediterranean World in Late Antiquity, AD 395-600, London, 1993. Recent general studies include two books by W. Treadgold, A History of the Byzantine State and Society, Stanford, California, 1997; and A Concise History of Byzantium, New York, 2001. Expert essays are to be found in G. W. Bowersock, P. Brown, O. Grabar, Late Antiquity. A Guide to the Postclassical World, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1999.
For Syria and the Near East, see in particular F. Millar, The Roman Near East, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1993; M. Sartre, D’Alexandre à Zénobie. Histoire du Levant antique, IVe siècle av. J.-C.- IIIe siècle ap. J.-C., Paris, 2001; G. Bowersock, Roman Arabia, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1983. These detailed studies should be consulted at the outset by anyone interested in the region. For the south, there is the massive work by E. Schrer, The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ (revised by G. Vermes, F. Millar, M. Black, M. Goodman), Edinburgh, 3 vols, 1973-1986. Other important studies include M. Sartre, Trois études sur l’Arabie romaine et byzantine, Brussels, 1982; D. Kennedy, ‘Syria’, in A. K. Bowman, E. Chaplin, A. Lintott (eds), The Cambridge Ancient History X, second edition, Cambridge, 1996, pp. 703-36. An entire volume of the series Aufstieg und Niedergang der rmischen Welt, II.8, Berlin and New York, 1977, is devoted to the region and contains important essays on a wide variety of topics. Likewise J.-M. Dentzer, W. Orthmann (eds.), Archéologie et histoire de la Syrie, II. La Syrie de l’époque achéménide à l’avènement de l’Islam, Saarbrcken, 1989, provides an excellent and authoritative collection of essays on wide-ranging aspects of Hellenistic and Roman Syria, focused on the geographical territory of the modern Syrian Arab Republic. More wide-ranging, and illustrated with spectacular colour photographs, is O. Binst (ed.), The Levant. History and Archaeology in the Eastern Mediterranean, Cologne, 1999. A beautifully illustrated account of the Nabataean kingdom and Arabia is provided by J. Taylor, Petra and the Lost Kingdom of the Nabataeans, London and New York, 2001.
Older, but still important, works include H. C. Butler et al., Publications of the American Archaeological Expedition to Syria in 1899-1900, New York, 1903-1914; and H. C. Butler et al., Publications of the Princeton University Archaeological Expeditions to Syria in 1904-1905 and 1909, Leiden, 1907-1949; and R. E. Brnnow, A. von Domaszewski, Die Provincia Arabia, Strasbourg, 1904-1909 (see also the article by D. Kennedy, ‘The Publications of the Princeton University Archaeological Expeditions to Syria in 1904-05 and 1909', Palestine Exploration Quarterly (1995), pp. 21-32). These early expeditions studied architecture and inscriptions. The most important source of epigraphic evidence is collected in the series Inscriptions grecques et latines de la Syrie (IGLS) of which various volumes have appeared since 1929 (a useful summary of the series is provided by H. MacAdam, ‘The IGLS series then and now (1905-89),’ Journal of Roman Archaeology 3 (1990), pp. 458-464). See also the summary by W. Van Rengen, ‘L’épigraphie grecque et latine de la Syrie. Bilan d’un quart de siècle de recherches épigraphiques’, Aufstieg und Niedergang der rmischen Welt II.8, pp. 31-53. Recently a subsidiary series of IGLS has also been intiated for Jordan, Inscriptions grecques et latines de la Jordanie (IGLJ). Other collections include the Inventaire des inscriptions de Palmyre, various authors, Beirut-Damascus-Paris, since 1930.
For the visitor to the region, a variety of guidebooks can be found. See, for example, R. Burns, Monuments of Syria. An Historical Guide, London and New York, 1992; W. Ball, Syria. A Historical and Architectural Guide, Buckhurst Hill, 1994; and S. Rollin, J. Streetly, Blue Guide: Jordan, London and New York, 1996. Old but still informative for the traveller are R. Boulanger’s The Middle East. Lebanon-Syria-Jordan-Iraq-Iran, Paris (Hachette World Guides), 1966, and G. Lankester Harding, The Antiquities of Jordan, London, 1967. A highly detailed bibliography of sites is provided by G. Lehmann, Bibliographie der archologischen Fundstellen und Surveys in Syrien und Libanon, Orient-Archologie Band 9, Rahden, 2002.

Foreword

	P. 9 There are no generally-agreed definitions of the chronological limits of terms like ‘Roman’ or ‘Byzantine’. A justification, if one were needed, for extending use of the term ‘Roman’ down to the seventh century, is provided by D. Olster, ‘From Periphery to Center: The Transformation of Late Roman Self-Definition in the Seventh Century’, in R. W. Mathisen and H. S. Sivan (eds.), Shifting Frontiers in Late Antiquity, Aldershot, 1996, pp. 93-101. See also J. Haldon, Byzantium in the Seventh Century: the Transformation of a Culture, Cambridge, 1990. Likewise there is little agreement on how best to subdivide this period. ‘Early’, ‘mid’ and ‘late’ Roman are terms often encountered in archaeological studies, but definitions vary depending on the material and site being studied. I have chosen to circumvent these difficulties by dividing the chronology of the Roman empire into two main periods which seem to reflect two principal fields of scholarship, one focused on the early empire and another on ‘late antiquity’.
Pp. 9-10 A general concept of ‘Syria’ was constructed by R. Dussaud, (see, for example, R. Dussaud, La Syrie antique et médiéval illustré, Paris, 1931), and ‘Syria’ or ‘Roman Syria’ is used extensively by modern scholars in a variety of ways, none of which suggests any rigid geographical or ethnic conception. See, for example, the comments by M. Sartre, D’Alexandre à Zénobie, pp. 11-12, 35. Modern boundaries do not help: Antioch, the foremost city of Roman Syria, is now in Turkey (but this identity is disputed by the Syrian Arab Republic); a large part of the Hauran is in the present-day state of Syria but for much of the period covered by this book most of it was in the province of Arabia (although the corpus of inscriptions for the city of Bostra is published as a volume in the series Inscriptions grecques et latines de la Syrie). Nor does the authority of the past provide a definition, because administrative names and boundaries changed. Judaea was part of the province of Syria during the first century but then became a separate province. It was renamed Syria Palaestina in the second century, but by the late Roman period the ‘Syria’ appellation had been dropped. By the sixth century the only provinces called Syria were two in the north-western corner of what had been the first century province of that name. Present-day political aspirations and antagonisms add to the confusion. In Lebanon there are many who want ‘Phoenicia’ to have a separate past and destiny from Syria, and others who deny the existence of Phoenicia. The region is a battleground for identities, ancient and modern; see, for example, G. W. Bowersock, ‘Palestine: Ancient History and Modern Politics’, in E. W. Said, C. Hitchens (eds.), Blaming the Victims. Spurious Scholarship and the Palestinian Question, London, 1988, pp. 181-191.
P. 10 The term ‘Fertile Crescent’ was coined by James Breasted (see, for example, his The Oriental Institute, Chicago, 1933).
Pp. 11-15 For a general geographical overview see the Tbinger Atlas des Vorderen Orients (TAVO), Wiesbaden, 1988; and R. J. A. Talbert (ed.), Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World, Princeton and Oxford, 2000. Other important surveys include E. Wirth, Syrien, Darmstadt, 1971; D. Kennedy, D. Riley, Rome’s Desert Frontier from the Air, London, 1990; Y. Tsafrir, L. Di Segni, J. Green, Tabula Imperii Romani: Iudaea-Palaestina, Jerusalem, 1994. For Mesopotamia: L. Dilleman, Haute-Mesopotamie orientale et pays adjacents, Paris, 1962. On water and human geography: M. Moussly, Le problème de l’eau en Syrie, Lyon, 1951. 
Pp. 16-17 On the debate between Hellenism and indigenous identity, see in particular F. Millar, The Roman Near East; and W. Ball, Rome in the East, London, 2000. My approaches to the problem have been influenced by: I. Hodder, Reading the past. Current approaches to interpretation in archaeology, Cambridge, 1986; M. Mann, The Sources of Social Power, Volume I: A History of Power from the Beginning to AD 1760, Cambridge, 1986; S. Swain, Hellenism and Empire: Language, Classicism and Power in the Greek World, AD 50-250, Oxford, 1996; I. Morris, Archaeology as Cultural History, Oxford, 2002.

Chapter 1: An Incidental Annexation

Pp. 19-23 On Pompey and the annexation: A. R. Bellinger, ‘The End of the Seleucids’, Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences 38 (1949), pp. 51-102; A. N. Sherwin-White, Roman Foreign Policy in the East, 168 BC to AD 1, Norman, 1983; P. M. W. Freeman, ‘Pompey’s Eastern Settlement: A Matter of Presentation?’, in C. Deroux (ed.), Studies in Latin Literature and Roman History VII, Collection Latomus 227 (1994), pp. 143-79. The political geography of Syria in 64 BC is described in two works by J. D. Grainger: The Cities of Seleukid Syria, Oxford, 1990; and Hellenistic Phoenicia, Oxford, 1991. On Parthian intentions and Roman interpretations, see K. Butcher, ‘A vast process: Rome, Parthia, and the formation of the eastern “client” states’, Journal of Roman Archaeology 7 (1994), pp. 447-53; see also notes to p. 51, below.
Pp. 23-24 For the Achaemenids see R. N. Frye, The History of Ancient Iran, Munich, 1984; J. Wiesehöfer, Ancient Persia from 550 BC to 650 AD, London and New York, 1996; P. Briant, From Cyrus to Alexander: a History of the Persian Empire, Winona Lake, 2002. For Achaemenid Syria: M. Sartre, ‘La Syrie sous la domination achéménide’, in J.-M. Dentzer, W. Orthmann (eds.), Archéologie et histoire de la Syrie, II, Saarbrcken, 1989, pp. 9-18; and his D’Alexandre à Zénobie, pp. 35-65; also J. D. Grainger, The Cities of Seleukid Syria, Oxford, 1990, pp. 15-30; and for the Phoenician cities S. Moscati, The World of the Phoenicians, London, 1973; G. E. Markoe, Phoenicians, London, 2000; and especially the works of J. Elayi, ‘The Phoenician cities in the Persian Period’, Journal of the Ancient Near Eastern Society of Columbia University 12 (1980), pp. 13-28; Recherches sur les cités phéniciennes à l’époque perse, Naples, 1987; L’économie des cités phéniciennes sous l’empire perse, Naples, 1990. 
Pp. 25-31 Seleucid and Ptolemaic Syria: the best general introduction to the Hellenistic world in English is P. Green, From Alexander to Actium. The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1990. For political history, see E. Will, Histoire politique du monde hellénistique, second edition, 2 vols., Nancy, 1972-1989. An excellent and detailed synthesis of Hellenistic Syria is to be found in M. Sartre’s D’Alexandre à Zénobie, pp. 67-433; note also an essay by the same author on the same subject, ‘La Syrie à l’époque hellénistique’, in J.-M. Dentzer, W. Orthmann (eds.), Archéologie et histoire de la Syrie, II, Saarbrcken, 1989, pp. 31-44. For the Seleucids in general, see A. Kuhrt, S. Sherwin-White (eds.), Hellenism in the East, London, 1987 (in which note the chapter by F. Millar, ‘The Problem of Hellenistic Syria’); and S. Sherwin-White, A. Kuhrt, From Samarkhand to Sardis. A New Approach to the Seleucid Empire, London, 1993. For Ptolemaic Syria and Palestine: R. S. Bagnall, The Administration of Ptolemaic Possessions Outside Egypt, Leiden, 1979. For the lack of Ptolemaic development, see D. Graf, ‘Hellenisation and the Decapolis’, Aram 4 (1992), pp. 1-48.
P. 26 In using terms like ‘the model of the Greek polis’ or ‘Greek-style city state’ I am not proposing that some sort of rigid blueprint was imposed on every city of the region, or that every city was a carbon-copy of democratic Athens in the fifth century BC. Nor does evidence for the adoption of Greek institutions necessarily mean that the population was essentially ‘Hellenized’. It is clear that, as in so many other spheres of social life in the region, there were local variations on the general theme of the Greek polis. Note the comments by D. Graf, above, notes to pp. 25-31. See also P. Leriche, ‘Urbanisme défensif et occupation du territoire en Syrie hellénistique’, in E. Frézouls (ed.), Sociétés urbaines, sociétés rurales dans l’Asie Mineure et la Syrie hellénistiques et romaines, Strasbourg, 1987. For Seleucid urbanism, see the essays by H. Seyrig, ‘Séleucos I et la fondation de la monarchie syrienne’, Syria 47 (1970), pp. 290-311; ‘Seleucus I and the Foundation of Hellenistic Syria’, in H. Seyrig, Scripta Varia. Mélanges d’archéologie et d’histoire, Paris, 1985, pp. 335-346; the works by J. D. Grainger, The Cities of Seleukid Syria, Oxford, 1990; Hellenistic Phoenicia, Oxford, 1991.
Pp. 28-9 For the final decline of the Seleucids see in particular A. R. Bellinger, ‘The End of the Seleucids’, Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences 38 (1949), pp. 51-102, and R. D. Sullivan, Near Eastern Royalty and Rome, 100-30 BC, Toronto, 1990. Concessions of independence to cities: but note that this did not always mean total independence, as kings sometimes minted coins in these ‘autonomous’ cities.
P. 30 The evidence for the growth of Seleucid cities in the second century BC has not yet been synthesized, but can be detected at various sites such as Antioch, Berytus and Dura-Europus. See P. Leriche, ‘Le Chrophylakeion de Doura-Europos et la mise en place du plan hippodamien de la ville’, Archives, Seals and Sealings in the Hellenistic World, Bulletin de correspondance Hellénique 30 (1993) pp. 157-69. The expansion of Berytus: D. Perring, ‘Excavations in the Souks of Beirut’, Berytus 43 (1997-8), pp. 9-34. Demonetization of Ptolemaic coinage: K. Butcher, Small Change in Ancient Beirut. The Coin Finds from BEY 006 and BEY 045, Berytus 45-6 (2001-2 (2003)), forthcoming.
P. 30-1 A general overview of pottery in the Seleucid empire is provided by L. Hannestad, Ikaros. The Hellenistic Settlements, volume 2:1. The Hellenistic Pottery from Failaka. With a Survey of Hellenistic Pottery in the Near East, Aarhus, 1983.
P. 31 The Seleucids as an ‘interlude’: J. Wiesehfer, Ancient Persia, pp. 103-114.

Chapter 2: Rome, Syria, Parthia and Persia

For Syria and the Near East in the early Roman period, Fergus Millar’s The Roman Near East is an indispensable source for the period from Augustus to Constantine. Likewise G. Bowersock, Roman Arabia, Cambridge, Mass., 1983, and the monumental study by M. Sartre, D’Alexandre à Zénobie, Paris, 2001. The articles by J.-P. Rey-Coquais, ‘Syrie romaine, de Pompée à Dioclétien’, Journal of Roman Studies 68 (1978), pp. 44-73, and ‘La Syrie, de Pompée à Diocletien: histoire politique et administrative’, in J.-M. Dentzer, W. Orthmann (eds.), Archéologie et histoire de la Syrie, II, Saarbrcken, 1989, pp. 45-61, are also essential for this period. A good overview in English is that provided by D. Kennedy, ‘The East’, in J. Wacher (ed.), The Roman World, vol. 1., London, 1990, pp. 266-308. Excellent discussions of third century history are to be found in D. S. Potter, Prophecy and History in the Crisis of the Roman Empire. A Historical Commentary on the Thirteenth Sibylline Oracle, Oxford, 1990; and M. Christol, L’empire romain du IIIe siècle. Histoire politique, 192-325 après J.-C., Paris, 1997. See also J. Eadie, ‘One hundred years of rebellion: the eastern army in politics, AD 175-272’, in D. Kennedy (ed.), The Roman Army in the East, Ann Arbor, 1996. For the late Roman period see M. H. Dodgeon, S. N. C. Lieu, The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars, AD 226-363. A Documentary History, London; 1991; and its companion volume G. Greatrex, S. N. C. Lieu, The Roman Eastern Frontiers and the Persian Wars, Part II. AD 363-630. A narrative sourcebook, London and New York, 2002; R. C. Blockley, East Roman Foreign Policy, Formation and Conduct from Diocletian to Anastasius, Leeds, 1992; G. Greatrex, Rome and Persia at War, 502-532, Leeds, 1998. See also the essay by G. Tate, ‘La Syrie à l’époque byzantine: Essai de synthèse’, in J.-M. Dentzer, W. Orthmann (eds.), Archéologie et histoire de la Syrie, II, pp. 97-116. For Rome’s relations with the Arabs, see in particular the works of I. Shahid, (below, notes to pp. 64-6 and 378). For Armenia: M.-L. Chaumont, ‘L’Armnie entre Rome et Iran’, Aufstieg und Niedergang der rmischen Welt 12.1 (1976), pp. 71-193. Sources for the seventh century are gathered together with a splendid commentary in A. Palmer, S. Brock, R. Hoyland, The Seventh Century in the West-Syrian Chronicles, Liverpool, 1993.

	P. 32 For the debate about Parthian and Sasanian ideology and empire, and the threat posed to Roman Syria: E. Dabrowa, La politique de l’état parthe à l’égard de Rome, Cracow, 1983; D. S. Potter, ‘Alexander Severus and Ardashir’, Mesopotamia 22 (1987), pp. 147-157; B. Isaac, The Limits of Empire, Oxford, 1990 (revised edition, 1992). For the size of the Roman armies, see Kennedy and Riley, Rome’s Desert Frontier, London, 1990, p. 43-44.
	P. 33-5 For the Parthians and Parthian history, see: N. C. Debevoise, A Political History of Parthia, Chicago, 1938; The Cambridge History of Iran, vols III.1-2, Cambridge, 1983; R. N. Frye, The History of Ancient Iran, Munich, 1984; M. A. R. Colledge, The Parthians, London, 1967; G. Hermann, The Iranian Revival, Oxford, 1977; J. Wolski, L’empire des Arsacides, Acta Iranica 32, 1993; J. Wiesehöfer, Ancient Persia from 550 BC to 650 AD, London and New York, 1996. For Roman relations with the Parthians in the republican period: A. Keaveney, ‘The King and the War Lords: Romano-Parthian Relations c. 64-53 BC’, American Journal of Philology 103 (1982), pp. 412-28.
	P. 34 The caution of Parthian kings: D. Kennedy, ‘Parthia and Rome: eastern perspectives’, in D. Kennedy (ed.), The Roman Army in the East, Ann Arbor, 1996, pp. 67-90.
	P. 35 Culture change in the Parthian kingdom: G. Hermann, The Iranian Revival, pp. 53-56.
	P. 37 Coins of Labienus and Pacorus: K. Butcher, Coinage in Roman Syria, London, 2003, pp. 27, 49, 95.
	P. 40-1 For Germanicus in Syria, new epigraphic evidence has arisen in the form of the senatus consultum de Cn. Pisone patre, published by W. Eck, A. Caballos, F. Fernández, Das Senatus Consultum de Cn Pisone Patre, Munich, 1996; an English translation of this important document is provided by D. S. Potter, ‘Senatus consultum de Cn. Pisone’, Journal of Roman Archaeology 11 (1998), pp. 437-57. For Corbulo: M. Hammond, ‘Corbulo and Nero’s Eastern Policy’, Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 45 (1934), pp. 81-104.
	P. 41-2 For the Jewish revolt and the Jewish elites, see especially M. Goodman, The Ruling Class of Judaea, Cambridge, 1987.
	P. 42 The imperial portrait on coinage: see A. Burnett, M. Amandry, P. P. Ripollès, Roman Provincial Coinage, vol. 1, London-Paris, 1992.
	Pp. 43-4 Flavian consolidation: G. Bowersock, ‘Syria under Vespasian’, Journal of Roman Studies 63 (1973), pp. 123-129; D. van Berchem, ‘Le port de Séleucie de Piérie et l’infrastructure navale des guerres parthiques’, Bonner Jahrbcher 185 (1985), pp. 47-48.
	P. 44 Roman presence at Jauf: M. P. Speidel, ‘The Roman Road to Dumatha (Jawf in Saudi Arabia) and the Frontier Strategy of the Praetensione Colligare’, Historia 36 (1987), pp. 211-221; T. Bauzou, ‘La praetensio de Bostra à Dumata (el-Jowf)’, Syria 73 (1996), pp. 23-35.
	Pp. 44-6 Arabia: G. W. Bowersock, ‘A Report on Arabia Provincia’, Journal of Roman Studies 61 (1981), pp. 219-42. The reasons for the Roman annexation are unknown. Perhaps Trajan considered Rabbel II’s successor unsatisfactory. See J. W. Eadie, ‘Artifacts of Annexation: Trajan’s Grand Strategy and Arabia’, in The Craft of the Ancient Historian. Essays in Honor of Chester G. Starr, Washington DC, 1985, pp. 407-23; M. Sartre, Bostra. Des origines à l’Islam, Paris, 1985, pp. 63-72; P. Freeman, ‘The annexation of Arabia and imperial Grand Strategy’, in D. Kennedy (ed.), The Roman Army in the East, Ann Arbor, 1996, pp. 91-118. Trajan’s Parthian war: the standard reference is F. A. Lepper, Trajan’s Parthian War, London, 1948. See also J. Guey, Essai sur la guerre parthique de Trajan (114-117), Bucarest, 1937; A. Maricq, ‘La province d’Assyrie créée par Trajan’, Syria 36 (1959), pp. 254-263; C. S. Lightfoot, ‘Trajan’s Parthian War and the Fourth-Century Perspective’, Journal of Roman Studies 80 (1990), pp. 115-26; J. Bennet, Trajan. Optimus Princeps. A Life and Times, London, 1997.
	P. 46 Characene and its recapture by the Parthians: D. Schlumberger, ‘Palmyre et la Mésène’, Syria 38 (1961), pp. 258-60; R. Black, ‘The History of Parthia and Characene in the 2nd Century AD’, Sumer 43 (1984), pp. 230-4; G. Bowersock, ‘La Mésène (Maisan) antonine’, in T. Fahd (ed.), L’Arabie préislamique et son environnement historique et culturel, Leiden, 1989, pp. 159-68; D. S. Potter, ‘The Inscription on the Bronze Herakles from Mesene: Vologeses IV’s War with Rome and the Date of Tacitus’ Annales’, Zeitschrift fr Papyrologie und Epigraphik 88 (1991), pp. 277-290. The Bar-Kokhba war: Y. Yadin, Bar-Kokhba, London, 1971; S. Applebaum, Prolegomena to the Study of the Second Jewish Revolt, Oxford, 1979; L. Mildenberg, The Coinage of the Bar Kokhba War, Aarau, 1984; W. Eck, ‘The Bar Kokhba Revolt: the Roman Point of View’, Journal of Roman Studies 59 (1999), pp. 76-89, suggesting that the revolt was more widespread. For Hadrian commanding the war, see F. Millar, The Roman Near East, p. 107.
	P. 46-7 Lucius Verus’ Parthian war: C. H. Dodd, ‘Chronology of the Eastern Campaigns of the Emperor Lucius Verus’, Numismatic Chronicle 1911, pp. 209-267; A. Birley, Marcus Aurelius. A Biography, London, 1987, pp. 184-189. Avidius Cassius: M. L. Astarita, Avidio Cassio, Rome, 1983.
	P. 48 Septimius Severus’ Parthian wars: Z. Rubin, ‘Dio, Herodian, and Severus’ Second Parthian War’, Chiron 5 (1975), pp. 419-41; A. Birley, The African Emperor: Septimius Severus, London, 1988. Boundary stone of Osrhoene: J. Wagner, ‘Provincia Osrhoenae: New Archaeological Finds Illustrating the Military Organization under the Severan Dynasty’, in S. Mitchell (ed.), Armies and Frontiers in Roman and Byzantine Anatolia, Oxford, 1983, pp. 103-30. Siege of Hatra: Z. Rubin (above); D. B. Campbell, ‘What Happened at Hatra? The Problems of the Severan Siege Operations’, in P. Freemen, D. Kennedy (eds), The Defence of the Roman and Byzantine East, Oxford, 1986, pp. 51-8. On Severus and the east see D. Kennedy, ‘The Frontier Policy of Septimius Severus: New Evidence from Arabia’, in S. Mitchell (ed.), Armies and Frontiers in Roman and Byzantine Anatolia, Oxford, 1983, pp. 879-88. Cassius Dio on Mesopotamia: 75.3.
	P. 49 Severus and Antioch: R. Ziegler, ‘Antiochia, Laodicea und Sidon in der Politik der Severer’, Chiron 8 (1978), pp. 493-514.
	P. 51 Dura Europus receives a Parthian envoy: M.-L. Chaumont, ‘Un document méconnu concernant l’envoi d’un ambassadeur Parthe vers Septime Sévere (P. Dura 60 B)’, Historia 36 (1987), pp. 422-47. Sasanian attitudes towards the Roman east: E. Yarshater, ‘Were the Sassanians Heirs to the Achaemenids?’, in La Persia nel Medioevo (Rome, 1970), Rome, 1971, pp. 517-531; D. S. Potter, ‘Alexander Severus and Ardashir’, Mesopotamia 22 (1987), pp. 147-157.
	Pp. 51-3 The Sasanians: G. Hermann, The Iranian Revival, Oxford, 1977; The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. III; R. N. Frye, The History of Ancient Iran, Munich, 1984; J. Wiesehöfer, Ancient Persia from 550 BC to 650 AD, London and New York, 1996.
	P. 53 Coins of Vologaeses VI: D. Sellwood, An Introduction to the Coinage of Parthia, London, 1971, p. 290 and no. 88/16.
	Pp. 53-5 For the history of this period, see especially D. S. Potter, Prophecy and History in the Crisis of the Roman Empire. A Historical Commentary on the Thirteenth Sibylline Oracle, Oxford, 1990. For Uranius Antoninus: R. Delbrueck, ‘Uranius of Emesa’, Numismatic Chronicle 1948, pp. 11-29; H. Seyrig, ‘Uranius Antonin: une question d’authenticité’, Revue numismatique 1958, pp. 51-57; and H. R. Baldus, Uranius Antoninus. Mnzprgung und Geschichte, Bonn, 1971. For the Sasanian attack on Syria: E. Honigmann, A. Maricq, Recherches sur les Res Gestae Divi Saporis, Brussels, 1953; E. Kettenhofen, Die rmisch-persischen Kriege des 3. Jahrhunderts n. Chr., Wiesbaden, 1982; E. Winter, Die sasanidisch-rmischen Friedensvertrge des 3. Jahrhunderts n. Chr., Frankfurt am Main, 1988.
	Pp. 55-8 The middle Euphrates: See two works by M. Gawlikowski, ‘Palmyre et l’Euphrate’, Syria 40 (1983), pp. 53-68; and ‘The Roman Frontier on the Euphrates’, Mesopotamia 1987, pp. 77-80. For geography and place names, see A. Musil, The Middle Euphrates, New York, 1927; M.-L. Chaumont, ‘Études d’histoire Parthe V. La route royale des Parthes de Zeugma à Séleucie du Tigre d’après l’itinéraire d’Isodore de Charax’, Syria 61 (1984), pp. 63-107. On ‘Ana, see: A. Northedge, A. Bamber, M. Roaf, Excavations at ‘Ana. Qal’a Island, Warminster, 1988. For Kifrin, see: A. Invernizzi, ‘Kifrin and the Euphrates limes’, in P. Freeman and D. Kennedy (eds.), The Defence of the Roman and Byzantine East, Oxford, 1986, pp. 357-381; E. Valtz, ‘Kifrin, a fortress of the limes on the Euphrates’, Mesopotamia 22 (1987), pp. 81-90. For Bijan: M. Gawlikowski, ‘L’le de Bidjan sur le moyen Euphrate: une forteresse assyrienne et romaine’, Archéologia 178 May 1983, pp. 26-33; ‘Began Island’, Archiv fr Orientforschung 29/30 (1984), p. 207; ‘Bijan in the Euphrates’, Sumer 42 (1985), pp. 15-21. Brittle ware pottery: S. L. Dyson, Excavations at Dura-Europos, Final Report IV.I.3, The Common Pottery. The Brittle Ware, New Haven, 1968. On the fall of Dura: S. James, ‘Dura-Europos and the Chronology of Syria in the 250s AD’, Chiron 15 (1985), pp. 111-124; D. MacDonald, ‘Dating the Fall of Dura-Europos’, Historia 35 (1986), pp. 45-68; and, on the question of whether there was a Sasanian occupation of Dura, F. Grenet, ‘Les Sassanides à Doura-Europos (253 ap. J.-C.)’, in P.-L. Gatier, B. Helly, J.-P. Rey-Coquais (below, notes to pp. 108-21), pp. 133-58. For the Roman alliance with Hatra: D. Oates, ‘A Note on Three Latin Inscriptions from Hatra’, Sumer 11 (1955), pp. 39-43; A. Maricq, ‘Classica et Orientalia 2: Les dernières années de Hatra. L’alliance romaine’, Syria 34 (1957), pp. 288-96; M.-L. Chaumont, ‘A propos de la chute de Hatra et du couronnement de Shapur Ier’, Acta Antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 27 (1979), pp. 207-37.
	Pp. 58-60 Palmyra: E. Will, ‘Le sac de Palmyre’, in Mélanges André Piganiol, Paris, 1966, pp. 1409-16; L. de Blois, ‘Odenathus and the Roman-Persian War of 252-64 AD’, Talanta 6 (1975), pp. 7-23; R. Stoneman, Palmyra and its Empire. Zenobia’s Revolt against Rome, Ann Arbor, 1994; E. Equini Schneider, Septimia Zenobia Sebaste, Rome, 1993; U. Hartmann, Das palmyrenische Teilreich, Stuttgart, 2001.
P. 58 The career and family of Odaenathus: M. Gawlikowski, ‘Les princes de Palmyre’, Syria 62 (1985), pp. 251-261; D. S. Potter, ‘Palmyra and Rome: Odaenathus’ Titulature and the Use of Imperium Maius’, Zeitschrift fr Papyrologie und Epigraphik 113 (1996), pp. 271-85.
	P. 59 Roman and Sasanian goods in the Gulf: D. T. Potts, ‘The Roman Relations with the Persicus sinus from the Rise of Spasinou Charax (127 BC) to the Reign of Shapur II (AD 309-379)’, in S. E. Alcock (ed.), The Early Roman Empire in the East, Oxford, 1997, pp. 89-107. The Baths of Diocletian: An inscription refers to such a building: see H. Seyrig, ‘Antiquités syriennes, 2: Notes épigraphiques’, Syria 12 (1931), p. 321, no. IV. For the suggestion that it was a palace, see R. Fellman, ‘Der Palast der Knigin Zenobia’, in E. M. Ruprechtsberger (ed.), Palmyra. Geschichte, Kunst und Kultur der syrischen Oasenstadt, Linz, 1987, pp. 131-6.
	Pp. 61-4. The Tetrarchy and Constantine: T. Barnes, The New Empire of Diocletian and Constantine, Harvard, 1982; T. Barnes, ‘Imperial campaigns, AD 285-311’, Phoenix 30 (1976), pp. 174-93. For the treaty between Narseh and the Romans: E. Winter, ‘On the Regulation of the Eastern Frontier of the Roman Empire in 298’, in D. H. French, C. S. Lightfoot, The Eastern Frontier of the Roman Empire, Oxford, 1989. Constantine’s eastern plans: T. D. Barnes, ‘Constantine and the Christians of Persia’, Journal of Roman Studies 75 (1985), pp. 126-36. Constantius II: B. H. Warmington, ‘Objectives and Strategy in the Persian War of Constantius II’, in J. Fitz (ed.), Limes. Acts of the XI Limes Congress, 1976, Budapest, 1977, pp. 509-20.
	Pp. 64-6 The federate Arabs: see three major works by I. Shahid, Byzantium and the Arabs in the Fourth Century, Washington DC, 1984; Byzantium and the Arabs in the Fifth Century, Washington DC, 1989; Byzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth Century, Washington DC, 1995; also M. Sartre, Trois études sur l’Arabie, Brussels, 1982, pp. 121-203; and for differing views on the nomad menace, S. T. Parker, Romans and Saracens: A History of the Arabian Frontier, Winona Lake, 1986; D. Graf, ‘Rome and the Saracens: Reassessing the Nomadic Menace’, in T. Fahd (ed.), L’Arabie préislamique et son environnement historique et culturel, Leiden, 1989, pp. 341-400; B. Isaac, The Limits of Empire: The Roman Army in the East, Oxford, 1992. Note also D. Graf, M. O’Connor, ‘The Origin of the Term Saracen and the Rawwafah Inscriptions’, Byzantine Studies 4 (1977), pp. 52-66. Strictly speaking many of these ‘Saracen’ groups were ‘allies’ rather than federates, but I have not made that distinction here. On Imru’ al-Qays, see H. I. MacAdam, ‘The Nemara Inscription: some historical considerations’, Al Abhath 28 (1980), pp. 31-46; J. A. Bellamy, ‘A New Reading of the Namarah Inscription’, Journal of the American Oriental Society 105 (1985), pp. 31-48. On Mavia, see P. Mayerson, ‘Mavia, Queen of the Saracens – A Cautionary Note’ Israel Exploration Journal 30 (1980), pp. 164-172; G. W. Bowersock, ‘Mavia, Queen of the Saracens’, Studien zur antiken Sozialgeschichte: Festschrift F. Vittinghoff (Klner historische Abhandlungen 28), 1980, pp. 477-95. Her tribe may have been the Tanukh.
	P. 66 Division of Armenia: R. C. Blockley, ‘The Division of Armenia between the Romans and the Persians at the End of the Fourth Century AD’, Historia 36 (1987), pp. 222-234.
	P. 67 Protecting the Caspian Gates: the evidence for Roman subsidies and a joint strategy is equivocal. For various views, see R. C. Blockley, ‘Subsidies and Diplomacy: Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity’, Phoenix 39 (1985), pp. 62-74; and Z. Rubin, ‘Diplomacy and War in the Relations Between Byzantium and the Sassanids in the Fifth Century AD’, in P. Freeman, D. Kennedy (eds), The Defence of the Roman and Byzantine East, Oxford, 1986, pp. 677-95. Huns: see Greatrex and Lieu, The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars, pp. 17-19.
	P. 68 Amorcesus: Shahid, Byzantium and the Arabs in the Fifth Century (above, notes to pp. 64-6), pp. 59-81; P. Mayerson, ‘The Island of Iotabe in the Byzantine Sources. A Reprise’, Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 287 (1992), pp. 1-4; D. G. Letsios, ‘The Case of Amorkesos and the Question of Roman foederati in Arabia in the Vth century’, in T. Fahd (ed.), L’Arabie préislamique et son environnement historique et culturel, Leiden, 1989, pp. 525-538.
	Pp. 68-71. For a history of this period, see M. Sartre, Trois études sur l’Arabie; G. Greatrex, Rome and Persia at War, 502-532, Leeds, 1998.
	Pp. 69-70. The war under Anastasius: Greatrex and Lieu, The Roman Eastern Frontier, pp. 62-77.
	P. 70 The Kindites: M. Sartre, Trois études, pp. 155-62; C. Robin, ‘Le royaume Hujride, dit “Royaume de Kinda” entre Himyar et Byzance’, Comptes rendus de l’Acadmie des inscriptions et belles-lettres (1996), pp. 665-714.
	Pp. 70-1 The Ghassanids: Shahid, Byzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth Century, Washington DC, 1995, pp. 95-124.
	P. 71 Sergiopolis: see below, notes to pp. 266-9.
	P. 73 Roman weakness: J. H. G. W. Liebeschuetz, ‘The Defences of Syria in the Sixth Century’, in C. B. Ruger (ed.), Studien zu den Militrgrenzen Roms II, Cologne, 1977, pp. 487-99. Justinian’s coinage in Palestine and Arabia: P. J. Casey, ‘Justinian, the limitanei, and Arab-Byzantine relations in the 6th c.’, Journal of Roman Archaeology 9 (1996), pp. 214-222.
	Pp. 75-6 Maurice: see in particular M. Whitby, The Emperor Maurice and His Historian, Oxford, 1988.
	Pp. 76-7 Persian invasion: M. Morony, ‘Syria under the Persians, 610-29’, in M. A. Bakhit (ed.), Proceedings of the Second Symposium on the History of Bilad al-Sham during the Early Islamic Period up to 40 AH/ 640 AD, vol. 1, Amman, 1987, pp. 87-95; J. Russell, ‘The Persian Invasions of Syia/Palestine and Asia Minor in the Reign of Heraclius: Archaeological and Numismatic Evidence’, in E. Kontoura-Galake (ed.), The Dark Centuries of Byzantium (7th-9thc.), Athens, 2001, pp. 41-71; Greatrex and Lieu, The Roman Eastern Frontier, pp. 183-97.

Chapter 3: Political Entities

On Government in general: A. H. M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire, Oxford, 1964; F. Millar, The Roman Empire and its Neighbours, New York, 1981; P. Garnsey, R. Saller, The Roman Empire. Economy, Society and Culture, London, 1987; F. Millar, The Emperor in the Roman World (31 BC – AD 337), 2nd Edition, London, 1992; A. W. Lintott, Imperium Romanum: Politics and Administration, London, 1993. 

	P. 79 The Gospel of Luke: 2.2 (‘And this taxing was first made when Cyrenius was governor of Syria’). ‘Cyrenius’ is presumably P. Suplicius Quirinius, who was governor in AD 6 and supervised the deposition of Herod’s son Archelaus and the imposition of direct rule over Judaea; he also supervised a census in Syria (below, notes to p. 106). However in the Gospels the birth of Jesus is set in the kingdom of Herod, who died in 4 BC. It is unlikely that the Romans would have conducted a census in the kingdom of a ‘client’ ruler, which was politically separate from the province.
	Pp. 80-2 Number of officials for the entire empire: P. Garnsey, R. Saller, The Roman Empire, pp. 20-6. Governors: In general, see B. E. Thomasson, Legatus. Beitrge zur rmischen Verwaltungsgeschichte, Stockholm, 1991. For the governors of Syria and other Near Eastern provinces, see J.-P. Rey-Coquais, ‘Syrie romaine, de Pompée à Dioclétien’, Journal of Roman Studies 68 (1978), pp. 44-73, at pp. 61-67; B. E. Thomasson, Laterculi praesidum, 3 vols., Gteborg, 1984-1990; E. Dabrowa, The Governors of Roman Syria from Augustus to Septimius Severus, Bonn, 1998; M. Sartre, Trois études sur l’Arabie romaine et byzantine, Brussels, 1982, pp. 77-120; G. Bowersock, Roman Arabia, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1983, pp. 161-163. See also J. Martindale et al., The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, 3 vols., Cambridge, 1971-1973
	P. 81 Tiberius’ governor: L. Aelius Lamia (Tacitus, Annals, 6.27.2). Germanicus and Piso: see notes to pp. 40-1.
	Pp. 82-7 The division of the provinces is discussed in many of the general works listed in chapter 2, to which add E. Kettenhofen, ‘Zur Nordgrenze der Provincia Arabiae im 3. Jahrhundert n. Chr.’, Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palstina-Vereins 97 (1981), pp. 62-73; T. Barnes, The New Empire of Diocletian and Constantine, Harvard, 1982; E. Dabrowa, ‘The Frontier in Syria in the First Century AD’, in P. Freeman, D. Kennedy (eds), The Defence of the Roman and Byzantine East, Oxford, 1986, pp. 93-108; M. Sartre, Trois études, chapter 1; J. Balty, J.-Ch. Balty, ‘L’Apamène antique et les limites de la Syria Secunda’, in T. Fahd (ed.), La géographie administrative et politique d’Alexandre à Mahomet (Colloque de Strasbourg 1979), 1983, pp. 41-75.
 	P. 83 Village of the lord: D. Feissel, J. Gascou, ‘Documents d’archives romains inédits du Moyen Euphrate’ (below, notes to pp. 142-5), at p. 541. 
Pp. 83-4 Judaea: F. Millar, The Roman Near East, pp. 44-8. Arabia: G. Bowersock, Roman Arabia, pp. 76-89; Millar, The Roman Near East, pp. 92-9. Syria Palaestina: Millar, The Roman Near East, pp. 108, 374. Boundaries of Syria Coele and Phoenice: J.-P. Rey-Coquais, Arados et sa Pérée aux époques grecque, romaine et byzantine, Paris, 1974, p. 120.
	P. 85 Diocletian: T. Barnes (above, notes to pp. 82-7).
	P. 86-7 Late Roman civil administration: A. H. M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire; J. H. W. G. Liebeschuetz, Antioch. City and Imperial Administration in the Later Roman Empire, Oxford, 1972.
	Pp. 87-98 Client states: The standard work in English is D. Braund, Rome and the Friendly King, London, 1983. I have chosen to maintain the terms ‘client kings’, ‘client states’, inadequate though these are. The essays by R. D. Sullivan in Aufstieg und Niedergang der rmischen Welt II.8: ‘The Dynasty of Commagene’ (pp. 732-763); ‘The Dynasty of Emesa’ (pp. 198-219); and ‘The Dynasty of Judaea in the First Century’ (pp. 296-354), cover the relevant dynasties in detail. Sullivan’s book Near Eastern Royalty and Rome, 100-30 BC, Toronto, 1990, deals with the Republican period. Other works on these states include, for Commagene: F. K. Drner, Kommagene. Ein wiederentdecktes Knigreich, Gundholzen, 1971; D. H. French, ‘Commagene: Territorial Definitions’, in Asia Minor Studien 3, Bonn, 1991, pp. 11-19; Emesa: C. Chad, Les dynastes d’Émèse, Beirut, 1972; The Ituraeans: E. Schrer, A History of the Jewish People, vol. I, Edinburgh, 1973, Appendix 1, ‘History of Chalcis, Ituraea and Abilene’, pp. 561-573; J. Starcky, ‘Arca du Liban’, Les Cahiers de l’Oronte 1971/2, pp. 103-117; G. Schmitt, ‘Zum Knigreich Chalkis’, Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palstina-Vereins 98 (1982), pp. 110-24; W. Schottroff, ‘Die Iturer’, in the same volume, pp. 125-52. Literature on the Herodians is extensive. See in particular Schrer, vol I; A. H. M. Jones, The Herods of Judaea, Oxford, 1938; and N. Kokkinos, The Herodian Dynasty. Origins, Role in Society and Eclipse, Sheffield, 1998. On the Nabataeans: P. C. Hammond, The Nabataeans, their History, Culture and Archaeology, Gteborg, 1973; A. Negev, ‘The Nabataeans and the Provincia Arabia’, Aufstieg und Niedergang der rmischen Welt II. 8 (1977), pp. 520-686; G. W. Bowersock, ‘A Report on Arabia Provincia’, Journal of Roman Studies 61 (1981), pp. 219-42.
	P. 89-90 Agrippa inscription: J.-P. Rey-Coquais, ‘Inscriptions grecques d’Apamée’, Les Annales archéologiques arabes syriennes 23 (1973), pp. 39-84. For the Rabbaeans or Rhambei, see M. G. Astour, The Rabbeans: A tribal society on the Euphrates from Yahdun-Lim to Julius Caesar (Syro-Mesopotamian Studies 2/1), January 1978. For the eras of Chalcis and Samosata: K. Butcher, Coinage in Roman Syria, London, 2003. For Osrhoene and Edessa, see F. Millar, The Roman Near East, pp. 472-81; S. K. Ross, Roman Edessa. Politics and culture on the eastern fringes of the Roman Empire, 114-242 CE, London, 2001.
	P. 91 Antiochus IV’s possessions: R. D. Sullivan, ‘The Dynasty of Commagene’ (see notes to pp. 87-98 above. On the acquisition of part of Armenia: Tacitus, Annals, 14.26.1. 
	P. 92 Arethusa inscription: L. Jalabert, R. Mouterde, C. Mondésert, Inscriptions grecques et latines de la Syrie V. Émésène, Paris, 1959, no. 2085. Recent excavation at Homs: P.-L. Gatier (below, notes to pp. 108-21, under Emesa). Tomb inscription: L. Jalabert, R. Mouterde, C. Mondésert (above), no. 2212. Connections between the royal dynasty and later historical figures: F. Millar, The Roman Near East, pp. 303.
	P. 93 Location of Chalcis: E. Will, ‘Un vieux problème de la topographie de la Beq‘ antique: Chalcis du Liban’, Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palstina-Vereins 99 (1982), pp. 141-6. 
P. 94 Military activity against the Ituraeans of Mount Lebanon: An inscription outlining the career of Q. Aemilius Secundus refers to this: H. Dessau, Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae, vol. 1, Berlin, 1892, no. 2683.
	Pp. 98-108 Cities: In general see A. H. M. Jones, The Cities of the Eastern Roman Provinces, Oxford, 1971; J. D. Grainger, The Cities of Seleukid Syria, Oxford, 1990; M. Sartre, L’Orient romain, Paris, 1991, pp. 335-55; D’Alexandre à Zénobie, Paris, 2001, pp. 639-733; and the essays in E. Frézouls (ed.), Sociétés urbaines, sociétés rurales dans l’Asie Mineure et la Syrie hellénistiques et romaines, Strasbourg, 1987 (including the editor’s own, ‘Du village à la ville: Problèmes de l’urbanisation dans la Syrie hellénistique et romaine’, pp. 81-93). Regional studies: A. H. M. Jones, ‘The Urbanization of the Ituraean Principality’, Journal of Roman Studies 21 (1931), pp. 265-75; A. Segal, ‘Roman Cities in the Province of Arabia’, Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 1981, pp. 108-121; M. Sartre, Trois études sur l’Arabie romaine et byzantine, Brussels, 1982; D. Urman, The Golan. A Profile of a Region During the Roman and Byzantine Periods, Oxford, 1985.
	P. 99 Village and city: G. Dagron, ‘Entre village et cité: La bourgade rurale des IVe-VIIe siècles en Orient’, Koinonia 3 (1979), pp. 29-52. The character and status of Androna: M. M. Mango, ‘Excavations and Survey at Androna, Syria: The Oxford Team 1999’, Dumbarton Oaks Papers 56 (2002), pp. 307-15.
	P. 99-100 The Macedonian renaming is considered by E. Frézouls, ‘La toponymie de l’Orient syrien et l’apport des éléments macédoniens’, in La toponymie antique. Actes du Colloque de Strasbourg, 12-14 juin 1975, Leiden, 1975, pp. 219-224. The parallelism of the cities’ situations is examined by J. D. Grainger, The Cities of Seleukid Syria, Oxford, 1990.
	P. 101 Antioch as ‘capital’: against the notion of capitals: F. Millar, The Roman Near East, p. 123; but see comments of M. Sartre, D’Alexandre à Zénobie, p. 614, note 26. Metropolis: G. Bowersock, ‘Hadrian and Metropolis’, Beitrge zur Historia-Augusta-Forschung 17: Bonner Historia-Augusta-Colloquium 1982/1983 (1985), pp. 75-88; J.-P. Rey-Coquais, ‘Syrie romaine’, pp. 56-7; K. Butcher, Coinage in Roman Syria, London, 2003. 
	P. 102 Disputing front-line positions: R. Ziegler, ‘Antiochia, Laodicea und Sidon in der Politik der Severer’, Chiron 8 (1978), pp. 493-514. Emesa and Seleucia as metropolis: K. Butcher, Coinage in Roman Syria, London, 2003. Rivalry of Berytus and Tyre: L. Jones Hall, Berytus, “Mother of Laws:” Studies in the Social History of Beirut from the Third to the Sixth Centuries AD, Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Ohio State University, 1996, p. 77.
	P. 106 Estimates of population: the census of AD 6 under the governor Quirinius recorded 117,000 in the territory of Apamea: H. Dessau, Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae, vol. 1, Berlin, 1892, no. 2683. Umm al-Jimal: B. de Vries, Umm al-Jimal. “Gem of the Black Desert”. A brief guide to the antiquities, Amman, 1990, p. 11. Lack of imperial involvement in urbanization: B. Isaac, The Limits of Empire, Oxford, 1990, pp. 331-71. Philippopolis: see notes to pp. 233-4. Colonies: F. Millar, ‘The Roman Coloniae of the Near East: a Study of Cultural Relations’, in H. Solin, M. Kajava (eds.), Roman Eastern Policy and Other Studies in Roman History. Proceedings of a Colloquium at Tvärminne, 2-3 October 1987, Helsinki, 1990, pp. 7-58. 
P. 107. Decline of Zeugma: excavations have revealed much less evidence of occupation after the mid-third century. For an overview, see N. Bagelen, R. Erge, Belkis/Zeugma. A Last Look at History, Istanbul, 2000. Emesa: The only evidence for this city’s decline would seem to be textual. Libanius claimed that Emesa was no longer an important city in his day, but see P.-L. Gatier, below, notes to pp. 108-21.
Pp. 108-21 For Syrian place names, cities, towns and villages in general, see R. Dussaud, Topographie historique de la Syrie antique et médiévale, Paris, 1927; E. Will, ‘Les villes de la Syrie à l’époque hellénistique et romaine’, J.-M. Dentzer, W. Orthmann (eds.), Archéologie et histoire de la Syrie, II, Saarbrcken, 1989, pp. 223-250; and the collection of essays in P.-L. Gatier, B. Helly, J.-P. Rey-Coquais (eds), Géographie historique au Proche-Orient (Syrie, Phénicie, Arabie, grecques, romaines, byzantines), Paris, 1988. For a detailed study of the political entities in the south, see in particular E. Schrer, The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ (175 BC – AD 135), English edition revised and edited by G. Vermes and F. Millar, 3 vols., Edinburgh, 1973-1987. 
There are numerous books and articles dealing with individual cities. A selection are cited here, in alphabetical order of city: Antioch: G. Downey, A History of Antioch in Syria: From Seleucus to the Arab Conquest, Princeton, 1961; J. H. W. G. Liebeschuetz, Antioch: City and Imperial Administration in the Later Roman Empire, Oxford, 1972; J. Lassus, ‘La ville d’Antioche à l’époque romaine d’après l’archéologie’, Aufstieg und Niedergang der rmischen Welt II.8, pp. 54-102; E. Will, ‘Antioche sur l’Oronte, métropole d’Asie’, Syria 74 (1997), pp. 99-113; C. Kondoleon, Antioch: The Lost City, Princeton, 2000. Apamea: J. Balty, J.-Ch. Balty, ‘Apamée de Syrie, archéologie et histoire I. Des origines à la Tétrarchie’, Aufstieg und Niedergang der rmischen Welt II.8, pp. 103-34; J.-Ch. Balty, Guide d’Apamée, Brussels, 1981; and by the same author, ‘Apamea in Syria in the Second and Third Centuries AD’, Journal of Roman Studies 78 (1988), pp. 91-104. Aradus: J.-P. Rey-Coquais, Arados et sa pérée aux époques grecque, romaine et byzantine, Paris, 1974. Berytus: J. Lauffray, Beyrouth, ville romaine, Beirut, 1953; N. Jidejian, Beirut Through the Ages, Beirut, 1973; J. Lauffray, ‘Beyrouth Archéologie et Histoire, époques gréco-romaines I’, Aufstieg und Niedergang der rmischen Welt II.8, pp. 135-63; K. Butcher, R. Thorpe, ‘A Note on Excavations in Central Beirut, 1994-96’, Journal of Roman Archaeology 10 (1997), pp. 291-306; D. Perring, ‘Excavations in the Souks of Beirut’, Berytus 43 (1997-8), pp. 9-34. Bostra: M. Sartre, Bostra. Des origines à l’Islam, Paris, 1985; H. I. MacAdam, ‘Bostra Gloriosa’, Berytus 23 (1985), pp. 169-85; K. S. Freyberger, ‘Einige Beobachtungen zur stdtebaulichen Entwicklung des rmischen Bostra’, Damaszener Mitteilungen 4 (1989), pp. 45-60. Caesarea: K. G. Holum et al., King Herod’s Dream. Caesarea on the Sea, New York and London, 1988; R. L. Vann (ed.), Caesarea Papers 1. Straton’s Tower, Herod’s Harbour, and Roman and Byzantine Caesarea, Ann Arbor, 1992; K. G. Holum, A. Raban, J. Patrich (eds.), Caesarea Papers 2. Herod’s Temple, the Provincial Governor’s Praetorium and Granaries, the Later Harbor, Portsmouth, 1999. Damascus: D. Sack, ‘Damaskus, die Stadt intra muros’, Damaszener Mitteilungen 2 (1985), pp. 207-290; T. Weber, ‘“Damaskos Polis Episemos”. Hellenistische, rmische und byzantinische Bauwerke in Damaskos aus der Sicht griechischer und lateinischer Schriftquellen’, Damaszener Mitteilungen 7 (1993), pp. 135-76; E. Will, ‘Damas antique’, Syria 71 (1994), pp. 1-43. Dura Europus: P. V. C. Baur, M. Rostovtzeff et al., The Excavations at Dura-Europos (1928-1933), New Haven, 1929-1952; F. Cumont, Fouilles de Doura-Europos, Paris, 1926; C. Hopkins, The Discovery of Dura-Europos, New Haven, 1979; S. Matheson, Dura-Europos, New Haven, 1982; P. Leriche et al. (eds), Doura-Europos. Études, Paris, 1986-1997 (some of which are published in Syria 63-69). Emesa: H. Seyrig, ‘Caractères de l’histoire d’Émèse’, Syria 36 (1959), pp. 184-192; P.-L. Gatier, ‘Palmyre et Emèse ou Emèse sans Palmyre’, Annales archéologiques arabes syriennes 42 (1996), pp. 431-436. Gadara: T. Weber, R. Khouri, Umm Qais: Gadara of the Decapolis, Amman, 1989; T. Weber, Gadara-Umm Qes. I. Gadara Decapolitana. Untersuchungen zur Topographie, Geschichte, Architektur und Bildenden Kunst einer “Polis Hellenis” im Ostjordanland, Wiesbaden, 2002. Gerasa: C. H. Kraeling (ed.), Gerasa. City of the Decapolis, New Haven, 1938; I. Browning, Jerash and the Decapolis, London, 1982; R. Khouri, Jerash. A Frontier City of the Roman East, London, 1986; F. Zayadine, Jerash Archaeological Project, 1981-1983, Amman, 1986. Heliopolis: T. Wiegand (ed.), Baalbek. Ergebnisse der Ausgrabungen und Untersuchungen in den Jahren 1898-1905, 3 vols., Berlin-Leipzig, 1921-1925; F. Ragette, Baalbek, London, 1980; M. von Ess, T. Weber, Baalbek. Im Bann rmischer Monumentalarchitektur, Mainz, 1999. Palmyra: D. Krencker, O. Puchstein et al., Palmyra. Ergebnisse der Expeditionen von 1902 und 1907, Berlin, 1932; I. A. Richmond, ‘Palmyra under the Aegis of Rome’, Journal of Roman Studies 53 (1963), pp. 43-54; I. Browning, Palmyra, London, 1979; J. Teixidor, Un port romain du désert: Palmyre et son commerce d’Auguste à Caracalla, Paris, 1984; J. Starcky, M. Gawlikowski, Palmyre, Paris, 1985; A. Schmidt-Colinet (ed.), Palmyra. Geschichte, Kunst und Kultur der syrischen Oasenstadt, Linz, 1987; A. Bounni, Kh. Al-As‘ad, Palmyra. History, Monuments and Museum, Damascus, 1988; E. Will, Les Palmyréniens. La Venise des sables, Paris, 1992. A whole volume of Aram (7.1, 1995) is dedicated to Palmyra. A recent and useful introduction to the site is Kh. al-As‘ad, J.-B. Yon, Inscriptions de Palmyre. Promenades épigraphiques dans la ville antique de Palmyre, Beirut-Damascus-Amman, 2001. Petra: I. Browning, Petra, London, 1980; R. G. Khouri, Petra: A Guide to the Capital of the Nabataeans, London, 1986; T. Weber, R. Wenning (eds), Petra. Antike Felsstadt zwischen arabischer Tradition und griechischer Norm, Mainz, 1997, L. Nehmé, F. Villeneuve, Petra, Paris, 1999. Scythopolis: B. Lifshitz, ‘Scythopolis. L’histoire, les institutions et les cultes de la ville à l’époque hellénistique et imperiale’, Aufstieg und Niedergang der rmischen Welt II.8, pp. 262-94; G. Foerster, Y. Tsafrir, ‘Nysa-Scythopolis in the Roman period: “a Greek City of Coele Syria” - evidence from the excavations at Bet-Shean’, Aram 4 (1992), pp. 117-139; Y. Tsafrir, G. Foerster, ‘Urbanism at Scythopolis-Bet Shean in the Fourth to Seventh Centuries’, Dumbarton Oaks Papers 51 (1997), pp. 85-146. Tripolis: H. S. Sarkis, ‘Histoire de Tripoli, I. Des origines à l’occupation franque’, Cahiers de l’Oronte 10 (1971-1972), pp. 81-102. Tyre: A. Poidebard, Un grand port disparu: Tyr, Paris, 1939; M. Chehab, ‘Tyr à l’époque romaine’, Mélanges de l’Université Saint-Joseph 38 (1962), pp. 13-40; N. Jidejian, Tyre Through the Ages, Beirut, 1969. Zeugma: J. Wagner, Seleukeia am Euphrat-Zeugma, Wiesbaden, 1976; D. L. Kennedy, The Twin Towns of Zeugma on the Euphrates, Ann Arbor, 1998.
P. 110 Laodicea Scabiosa: Ptolemy, Geography, 5.16.
Pp. 113-14 The Decapolis: An entire volume of Aram (4, 1992) is dedicated to the Decapolis. See also S. T. Parker, ‘The Decapolis Reviewed’, Journal of Biblical Literature 94 (1975), pp. 437-441; H. Bietenhard, ‘Die syrische Dekapolis von Pompeius bis Traian’, Aufstieg und Niedergang der rmischen Welt 2.8, pp. 220-261. 
P. 115 Symeon the Fool: see C. Mango, Byzantium. The Empire of New Rome, London, 1980, pp. 64-65.
P. 115-16 The status of Heliopolis: F. Millar, ‘The Roman coloniae of the Near East’ (above, notes to p. 106).
P. 117 Hellenistic Palmyra: the nature and extent of the settlement is at last beginning to emerge. See A. Schmidt-Colinet, Kh. al-As‘ad, ‘Zur Urbanistik des hellenistischen Palmyra. Ein Vorbericht’, Damaszener Mitteilungen 12 (2000), pp. 61-93.
P. 117-18 Raphanea: N. Pollard, Soldiers, Cities and Civilians in Roman Syria, Ann Arbor, 2000, p. 268.
P. 120 Random imperial responses to local petitions: for various views, see notes to pp. 157-61 (cities in the Hauran).

Chapter 4: Time and Motion

Pp. 122-7 On eras and calendars: V. Grumel, Traité d’études byzantines, Paris, 1958; E. J. Bickerman, Chronology of the Ancient World, London, 1968; A. E. Samuel, Greek and Roman Chronology. Calendars and Years in Classical Antiquity, Munich, 1972. Studies specific to the region include H. Seyrig, ‘Sur les ères de quelques villes de Syrie’, Syria 27 (1950), pp. 5-50; J.-P. Rey-Coquais, ‘Calendriers de la Syrie gréco-romaine d'après des inscriptions inédites’, Akten des VI. Internationalen Kongresses für Griechische und Lateinische Epigraphik, Munich, 1972, Munich, 1973, pp. 564-566; P. M. W. Freeman, ‘The Era of the Province of Arabia: Problems and Solution?’, in H. I. MacAdam, Studies in the History of the Roman Province of Arabia, Oxford, 1986, pp. 38-46; Y. Meimaris, Chronological Systems in Roman-Byzantine Palestine and Arabia, Athens, 1992. See also comments by A. Wallace-Hadrill, ‘Mutatio morum: the idea of a cultural revolution’, in T. Habinek, A. Schlesaro (eds.), The Roman Cultural Revolution, Cambridge, 1997, pp. 3-22.
	P. 123 Eras at Antioch: K. Butcher, Coinage in Roman Syria, London, 2003. Mariamme: see commentary to IGLS V (above, notes to p. 92), no 2107. ‘Ain as-Samake: H. Seyrig, ‘La date des mosaques de ‘Ain es-Samake’, Syria 39 (1959), pp. 173-8.
Pp. 127-34 On travel: L. Casson, Travel in the Ancient World, 2nd edition, Baltimore, 1994; J.-M. André, M.-F. Baslez, Voyager dans l’Antiquité, Paris, 1993. On roads and other works: the seminal study is P. Thomsen, ‘Die rmischen Meilensteine der Provinzen Syria, Arabia und Palaestina’, Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palstinavereins 40 (1917), pp. 1-106. A selection of other works on the road system includes, for Syria: A. Poidebard, La trace de Rome dans le désert de Syrie. Le limes de Trajan à la conqute arabe, Paris, 1934; R. G. Goodchild, ‘The Coast Road of Phoenicia and its Milestones’, Berytus 9 (1949), pp. 91-107; T. Bauzou, ‘Les routes romaines de Syrie’, in Archéologie et Histoire de la Syrie II, pp. 205-211; D. Graf, ‘The Persian Royal Road System’, Achaemenid History 8 (1994), pp. 167-189; Palestine/Judaea: B. Isaac, I Roll, Roman Roads in Judaea I, Oxford, 1982; I. Roll, ‘The Roman Road System in Judaea’, The Jerusalem Cathedra 3 (1983), pp. 136-61; I. Roll, E. Ayalon, ‘Roman Roads in Western Samaria’, Palestine Exploration Quarterly 118 (1986), pp. 113-34; I. Roll, ‘A Latin Imperial Inscription from the Time of Diocletian Found at Yotvata’, Israel Exploration Journal 39 (1989), pp. 239-60; M. Fischer, B. Isaac, I Roll, Roman Roads in Judaea II, Oxford, 1996; Arabia: D. L. Kennedy, Archaeological explorations of the Roman Frontier in North-Eastern Jordan, Oxford, 1982; T. Bauzou, ‘Les voies de communication dans le Hauran à l’époque romaine’, in J.-M. Dentzer (ed.), Hauran I, Paris, 1985, pp. 137-65, D. L. Kennedy, ‘Roman Roads and Routes in North East Jordan’, Levant 29 (1997), pp. 71-93. For the Via Nova Traiana, see D. Graf, ‘The Via Nova Traiana in Arabia Petraea’, in J. Humphrey (ed.), The Roman and Byzantine Near East: Some Recent Archaeological Research, Ann Arbor, 1995, pp. 241-67. On maps: O. A. W. Dilke, Greek and Roman Maps, London, 1985.
	P. 129 Milestones: B. Isaac, The Limits of Empire, Oxford, 1990, pp. 304-9.
	P. 131-2 Theophanes’ accounts are published in C. H. Roberts, E. G. Turner (eds), Catalogue of the Greek and Latin Papyri in the John Rylands Library, Manchester. Vol. IV. Documents of the Ptolemaic, Roman, and Byzantine Periods (Nos. 552-717), Manchester, 1952, pp. 104-7 and 117-49.
	P. 132 Travellers between Antaradus and Laodicea: J.-P. Rey-Coquais, Arados et sa Pérée, Paris, 1974, pp. 28-9. The travellers in this case were St Peter and his disciples.
	Pp. 132-4 Harbours and river traffic: D. van Berchem, ‘Le port de Séleucie de Piérie et l’infrastructure navale des guerres parthiques’, Bonner Jahrbcher 185 (1985), pp. 47-87; J. Rougé, ‘La navigation intérieure dans le Proche Orient antique’, in P. Louis (ed.), L’homme et l’eau en Méditerranée et au Proche-Orient, Lyon, 1986, pp. 39-49; A. Raban et al., The Harbours of Caesarea Maritima 1: The site and excavations, Oxford, 1989.
	P. 134 Shipwright at Derkush: L. Jalabert, R. Mouterde, Inscriptions grecques et latines de la Syrie II. Chalcidique et Antiochène, Paris, 1939, no. 665.

Chapter 5: Syrian Landscapes: Exploiting the Available

For some general views: J. Rich, A. Wallace-Hadrill (eds.), City and Country in the Ancient World, London, 1991; Tamara Lewit, Agricultural Production in the Roman Economy, AD 200-400, Oxford, 1991; L. De Ligt, Fairs and Markets in the Roman Empire: Economic and Social Aspects of Periodic Trade in a Pre-industrial Society, Amsterdam, 1993. G. R. D. King, A. Cameron (eds.), The Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East II. Land Use and Settlement Patterns, Princeton, 1994.

	Pp. 138-40 On villages: J.-M. Dentzer, F. Villeneuve, ‘Les villages de la Syrie romaine dans une tradition d’urbanisme oriental’, in J.-L. Huot, M. Yon, Y. Calvet (eds.), De l’Indus aux Balkans. Recueil à la mmoire de Jean Deshayes, Paris, 1985, pp. 213-48; P.-L. Gatier, ‘Villages du Proche-Orient protobyzantin (4ème – 7ème s.) Étude régionale’, in G. R. D. King, A. Cameron (eds.), The Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East II. Land Use and Settlement Patterns, Princeton, 1994, pp. 17-48; G. Tate, ‘The Syrian Countryside during the Roman Era’, in S. E. Alcock (ed.), The Early Roman Empire in the East, Oxford, 1997, pp. 55-71. Other relevant studies include H. I. MacAdam, ‘Some Aspects of Land Tenure and Social Development in the Roman Near East: Arabia, Phoenicia and Syria’, in T. Khalidi (ed.), Land Tenure and Social Transformation in the Middle East, Beirut, 1984, pp. 45-62; and G. W. Bowersock, ‘Social and Economic History of Syria under the Roman Empire’, in J.-M. Dentzer, W. Orthmann (eds.), Archéologie et histoire de la Syrie, II, Saarbrcken, 1989, pp. 63-80. For regional studies, see, for example, S. Applebaum, ‘Judaea as a Roman Province: the Countryside as a Political and Economic Factor’, Aufstieg und Niedergang der rmischen Welt II.8, pp. 355-96; C. M. Dauphin, S. Gibson, ‘Ancient Settlements and their Landscape: the Results of Ten Years of Survey on the Golan Heights (1978-1988)’, Bulletin of the Anglo-Israel Archaeological Society 12 (1992-3), pp. 7-31; S. Dar, Settlements and Cult Sites on Mount Hermon, Israel. Ituraean Culture in the Hellenistic and Roman Periods, Oxford, 1993; Y. Hirschfeld, ‘Farms and Villages in Byzantine Palestine’, Dumbarton Oaks Papers 51 (1997), pp. 33-71. See also the notes to pp. 145-53, 153-6, 157-61, below.
	P. 137 The Gerasa Macellum: A. Uscatescu, M. Martín-Bueno, ‘The Macellum of Gerasa (Jerash, Jordan): From a Market Place to an Industrial Area’, Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 307 (1997), pp. 67-88. Cities setting prices: D. Sperber, Roman Palestine, 200-400. Money and Prices, Bar Ilan University, 1974.
Pp. 137-8 Julianus the Architect: there are several versions of the text apart from Hermenopolus. See C. Saliou, Le traité d’urbanisme de Julien d’Ascalon. Droit et architecture en Palestine au VIe siècle, Paris, 1996. The English translation quoted here is the one provided by J. P. Brown, The Lebanon and Phoenicia. Ancient Texts Illustrating their Physical Geography and Native Industries, Volume I: The Physical Setting and the Forest, Beirut, 1969, pp. 49-52 (see also his comments there on Rabbi Akiba). See also C. Saliou, Les lois des btiments, Beirut, 1994.
P. 138 A land of villages: emphasized by F. Millar, The Roman Near East; see also G. Bowersock, ‘Social and Economic History of Syria’ (above, notes to pp. 138-40). For Syrians abroad identifying with their home village, see D. Feissel, ‘Remarques de toponymie syrienne d’après des inscriptions grecques chrétiennes trouvées hors de Syrie’, Syria 59 (1982), pp. 319-343. On villas: J. J. Rossiter, ‘Roman villas of the Greek east and the villa in Gregory of Nyssa Ep. 20,’ Journal of Roman Archaeology 2 (1989), pp. 101-110; J. Lassus, ‘Une villa de plaisance à Daphné-Yakto’, in R. Stillwell (ed.), Antioch-on-the-Orontes II, Princeton, 1938, pp. 95-147; R. Stillwell (ed.), Antioch-on-the-Orontes III, Princeton, 1941, pp. 1-34. For those south of Berytus, see M. H. Chéhab, Mosaiques du Liban, Bulletin du Musée de Beyrouth 14 (2 vols., 1957-59); Z. Safrai, The Economy of Roman Palestine, London, 1994; Y. Hirschfeld, ‘Jewish Rural Settlement in Judaea in the Early Roman Period’, in S. E. Alcock (ed.), The Early Roman Empire in the East, Oxford, 1995, pp. 72-88.
	P. 139 The elimination of peasant proprietors: A. H. M. Jones, ‘The Roman Colonate’, Past and Present 13 (1958), pp. 1-13 (reprinted in The Roman Economy, Oxford, 1974, pp. 293-307). Growth in late Roman times: C. Foss, ‘The Near Eastern Countryside in Late Antiquity: A Review Article’, in J. Humphrey (ed.), The Roman and Byzantine Near East: Some Recent Research, Ann Arbor, 1995, pp. 213-34; see also notes to pp. 145-53, 153-6, 157-61, below. Large hydraulic projects: see comments by G. Tate, in S. Alcock (ed.), (above, notes to pp. 138-40), at pp. 62-4.
	Pp. 140-2 The spread of sedentarization: see G. Tate, in S. Alcock (ed.), pp. 57-8.
	P. 141 Limitanei cultivating their own fields: some scholars debate this, but they certainly seem to have owned land: B. Isaac, The Limits of Empire, Oxford, 1990, pp. 208-9. See also N. Pollard, Soldiers, Cities and Civilians in Roman Syria, Ann Arbor, 2000, p. 222. Rescript of Constantine: Theodosian Code 7.20.3; see discussion in Pollard, Soldiers, Cities and Civilians, pp. 162, 248.
Pp. 142-5 Archives and documentary evidence: A helpful list, with comments and bibliography, is provided by H. M. Cotton, W. E. H. Cockle and F. G. B. Millar, ‘The papyrology of the Roman Near East: a survey’, Journal of Roman Studies 85 (1995), pp. 214-235. For documents from the Babatha archive see N. Lewis, The Documents from the Bar Kochba Period in the Cave of Letters: Greek Papyri, Jerusalem, 1989; G. W. Bowersock, ‘The Babatha Papyri, Masada and Rome’, Journal of Roman Archaeology 4 (1991), pp. 336-44; M. Goodman, ‘Babatha’s Story’, Journal of Roman Studies 81 (1991), pp. 169-75; M. Broshi, ‘Agriculture and Economy in Roman Palestine: Seven Notes on the Babatha Archive’, Israel Exploration Journal 42 (1992), pp. 230-40. Another archive from the same find is published by H. M. Cotton, ‘The Archive of Salome Komaise, Daughter of Levi: Another Archive from the “Cave of Letters”’, Zeitschrift fr Papyrologie und Epigraphik 105 (1991), pp. 171-208. For the Euphrates archive, see the articles by D. Feissel, J. Gascou, ‘Documents d’archives romains inédits du Moyen Euphrate (IIIe siècle après J.-C.)’, Comptes rendus de l’Acadmie des inscriptions et belles-lettres (1989), pp. 535-561; ‘Documents d’archives romains inédits du Moyen Euphrate (IIIe siècle après J.-C.) I. Les pétitions (P. Euphr. 1 à 5)’, Journal des savants 65 (1995), pp. 61-119; ‘II. Les actes de vente-achat (P. Euphr. 6 à 10)’, Journal des savants 67 (1997), pp. 3-57; J. Teixidor, ‘Deux documents syriaques du IIIe siècle apres J.-C. provenant du moyen Euphrate’, Comptes rendus de l’Acadmie des inscriptions et belles-lettres (1990), pp. 146-166; also S. Brock, ‘Some New Syriac Documents from the Third Century AD’, Aram 3.1-2 (1991), pp. 259-267. Dura documents: C. B. Welles, R. O. Fink, J. F. Gilliam, The Excavations at Dura-Europus. Final Report V.1: The Parchments and Papyri, New Haven, 1958. For a summary of the Petra archive, see L. Koenen, ‘The carbonized archive from Petra’, Journal of Roman Archaeology 9 (1996), pp. 177-188. Nessana: C. J. Kraemer, Excavations at Nessana 3: Non-literary papyri, Princeton, 1958.
	Pp. 145-53 The ‘Dead Cities’ and the Antioch region: for early approaches, see M. de Vogu, Syrie centrale, architecture civile et religieuse du Ier au VIIe siècle, 2 vols., Paris, 1865-1877; H. C. Butler, E. Litmann, D. Magie, D. R. Stuart (eds.), Publications of the Princeton University Archaeological Expeditions to Syria in 1904-1905 and 1909, 4 volumes, Leiden, 1907-1949, and J. Mattern, Villes mortes de Haute Syrie, Beirut, 1944. The magisterial study of G. Tchalenko, Villages antiques de la Syrie du nord. Le massif du Bélus à l’époque romaine, 3 vols., Paris, 1953-1958, deserves careful study. Important recent work includes: O. Callot, Huileries antiques de Syrie du nord, Paris, 1984; J.-P. Sodini et al., ‘Déhès (Syrie du nord) campagnes I-III (1976-1978). Recherches sur l’habitat rural’, Syria 57 (1980), pp. 1-304; J. H. G. W. Liebeschuetz, H. Kennedy, ‘Antioch and the Villages of Northern Syria in the Fifth and Sixth Centuries AD: Trends and Problems’, Nottingham Medieval Studies 32 (1988), pp. 65-90; G. Tate, Les campagnes de la Syrie du nord, du IIe au VIIe siècle, vol. I, Paris, 1992; I. Peña, The Christian Art of Byzantine Syria, 1996; C. Strube, Die “Toten Städte”. Stadt und Land in Nordsyrien während der Spätantike, Mainz, 1996; M. Decker, ‘Food for an Empire: Wine and Oil Production in North Syria’, in S. Kingsley, M. Decker (eds.), Economic Exchange in the Eastern Mediterranean during Late Antiquity, Oxford, 2001, pp. 69-86. For the sites, see also the studies by I. Peña, P. Castellana, R. Fernández, Inventaire du Jébel Baricha, Milan, 1987; Inventaire du Jébel El-A‘la, Milan, 1990; and Inventaire du Jébel Wastani, Milan, 1999.
	P. 146 Broad trends: see especially G. Tate (above, notes to pp. 145-53). Estimates of population are derived from Peña, (above, notes to pp. 145-53), p. 40. 
P. 148 A summary of some of the changing views about the Dead Cities is provided by C. Foss (above, notes to p. 139). For another summary of Tchalenko, see K. Greene, The Archaeology of the Roman Economy, pp. 138-40.
P. 148-9 LRA 1 and the Dead Cities: M. Decker, ‘Food for an Empire: Wine and Oil Production in North Syria’ (above, notes to pp. 145-53). Presses and quality of oil: O. Callot, Huileries antiques de Syrie du nord, Paris, 1984.
P. 151 Zaero (Baziher): See H. C. Butler, Publications of the Princeton University Archaeological Expedition to Syria in 1904-1905. Division II. Section B. Part 6, Leiden, 1920, p. 330.
P. 153 On the plain of Antioch, see R. J. Braidwood, Mounds in the Plain of Antioch, Chicago, 1937, and in particular K. Aslihan Yener, C. Edens, T. P. Harrison, J. Verstraete, T. J. Wilkinson, ‘The Amuq Valley Regional Project, 1995-1998’, American Journal of Archaeology 104 (2000), pp. 163-220. 
Pp. 153-6 Chalcidice and the steppe of north eastern Syria: H. C. Butler, Publications of the Princeton University Archaeological Expedition to Syria, Division II. B. Parts 1-2, Leiden, 1920 and 1908 respectively; R. Mouterde, A. Poidebard, Le Limes de Chalcis. Organisation de la steppe en Haute Syrie romaine, Paris, 1945; B. Geyer, ‘Des fermes byzantines aux palais omayyades, ou l’ingénieuse mise en valeur des plaines steppiques de Chalcidique’, in L. Nordiguian, J.-F. Salles (eds.), Aux origines de l’archéologie aérienne. A. Poidebard (1878-1955), Beirut, 2000, pp. 109-122; G. M. Schwartz, H. H. Curvers, F. A. Gerritsen, J. A. MacCormack, N. F. Miller, J. A. Weber, ‘Excavation and Survey in the Jabbul Plain, Western Syria: The Umm el-Marra Project, 1996-1997’, American Journal of Archaeology 104 (2000), pp. 419-462. See also J. Lassus, Inventaire archéologique de la région au nord-est de Hama, 2 vols., Damascus, 1935. 
P. 155-6 Qasr Ibn Wardan: H. C. Butler et al., Publications of the Princeton University Expedition to Syria in 1904-5 and 1909 II.B, Leiden, 1920, pp. 26-45; H. C. Butler, Early Churches in Syria, 4th to 7th Centuries, Amsterdam, 1969; C. Mango, Byzantine Architecture, London, 1986, pp. 80-82.
Pp. 156-7 Palmyrene: A. Musil, Palmyrena. A Topographical Itinerary, New York, 1928; D. Schlumberger, La Palmyrène du Nord-Ouest, Paris, 1951.
	Pp. 157-61 The Hauran: J.-M. Dentzer, Hauran I, Paris, 1988 (in which see in particular the essay by F. Villeneuve, ‘L’économie rurale et la vie des campagnes dans le Hauran antique’, pp. 63-136); F. Villeneuve, ‘Economie et société des villages de la montagne hauranaise à l’époque romaine: l’apport des données archéologiques’, Les Annales archéologiques arabes syriennes 41 (1997), pp. 31-7. A useful guide to the sites of the region is A. Abou Assaf, The Archaeology of Jebel Hauran. The Mohafaza of Souweida, Damascus, 1998. The main arguments for and against a policy of urbanisation in the Hauran, and the meaning of various terms encountered in the inscriptions, are to be found in: G. M. Harper, ‘Village Administration in the Roman Province of Syria’, Yale Classical Studies 1 (1928), pp. 105-168; H. MacAdam, ‘Epigraphy and Village Life in Southern Syria during the Roman and Early Byzantine Periods’, Berytus 31 (1983), pp. 105-115; H. MacAdam, ‘Some Aspects of Land Tenure and Social Development in the Roman Near East: Arabia, Phoenicia and Syria’, in T. Khalidi (ed.), Land Tenure and Social Transformation in the Middle East, Beirut, 1984, pp. 45-62; H. MacAdam, Studies in the History of the Roman Province of Arabia, Oxford, 1986; J. Grainger, ‘“Village Government” in Roman Syria and Arabia’, Levant 27 (1995), pp. 179-195; M. Sartre, ‘Les metrokomiai de Syrie du sud’, Syria 76 (1999), pp. 197-222. Les Annales archéologiques arabes syriennes 41 (1997) is devoted to the Hauran (Mohafazat as-Sweida).
	P. 159 On nomads in the Hauran, see D. Graf, ‘Romans and Saracens’ (above, notes to pp. 64-6); M. C. A. MacDonald, ‘Nomads and the Hawran in the Late Hellenistic and Roman Periods’, Syria 70 (1993), pp. 303-403; M. Sartre, ‘Transhumance, économie et société de montagne en Syrie du sud’, Les Annales archéologiques arabes syriennes 41 (1997), pp. 75-86; and H. Zeinaddin, ‘Safaitische Inschriften aus dem Gabal al-‘Arab’, Damaszener Mitteilungen 12 (2000), pp. 265-89.
	P. 161 Sanamein inscription: see M. Sartre, ‘Les metrokomiai’ (above, notes to pp. 157-61).
	Pp. 161-6 Water: in general: M. Moussly, Le problème de l’eau en Syrie, Lyon, 1951; Ö. Wikander (ed.), Handbook of Ancient Water Technology, Leiden, 2000. On aqueducts: A. T. Hodge, Roman Aqueducts and Water Supply, London, 1992; A. Wilson, ‘Deliveries extra urbem: aqueducts and the countryside’, Journal of Roman Archaeology 12 (1999), pp. 314-331.
	P. 163-4 On dams: Y. Calvet and B. Geyer, Barrages antiques de Syrie, Lyon, 1992. For illustrations of the dam at Homs see M. Abdulkarim, ‘Problems Relating to the Refoundation of the City of Emese (Homs) in the Hellenistic and Roman Periods’ (in Arabic), Les Annales archéologiques arabes syriennes 44 (2001), pp. 45-53 (English summary on p. 193). Antioch’s canals: D. van Berchem (above, notes to pp. 43-4); D. Feissel, ‘Deux listes de quartiers d’Antioche astreints au creusement d’un canal (73-4 après J.-C.)’, Syria 62 (1985), pp. 77-103. 
Pp. 165-6 Resafa’s cisterns: W. Brinker, ‘Zur Wasserversorgung von Resafa-Sergiopolis’, Damaszener Mitteilungen 5 (1991), pp. pp. 119-46. Water management in the Negev: P. Mayerson, The Ancient Agricultural Regime of Nessana and the Central Negev, London, 1960. 
Pp. 166-7 Wheat from Syria regarded as superior: implied by Heichelheim (below, notes to pp. 168-9), pp. 127-8. Economic interdependence of cities: M. Fulford, ‘Economic interdependence among urban communities of the Roman Mediterranean’, World Archaeology 19 (1987), pp. 58-75. Gallus and the landowners: Ammianus Marcellinus 14.7.2.
	P. 167-8 Grain shortages: N. Pollard, Soldiers, Cities and Civilians in Roman Syria, Ann Arbor, 2000, pp. 222-5. Julian and the landowners: Ammianus Marcellinus 22.14.1; Libanius Orations 18.195; see comments by J. H. W. G. Liebeschuetz, Antioch, Oxford, 1972, pp. 127, 130, and N. Pollard, Soldiers, pp. 222-3. 
Pp. 168-9 On field systems: G. Tate, ‘The Syrian Countryside’, in S. Alcock (ed.) (above, notes to pp. 138-40), at pp. 60-2 (northern Syria); F. Villeneuve, ‘L’économie rurale et la vie des campagnes dans le Hauran antique’, in J.-M. Dentzer, Hauran I, Paris, 1988, pp. 63-136 (Hauran); J. Leblanc, G. Poccardi, ‘Étude de la permanence de tracés urbains et ruraux antiques à Antioche-sur-l’Oronte’, Syria 76 (1999), pp. 91-126 (Antioch). Laws encouraging utilization of land: G. Tate, in S. Alcock (ed.) (above). Surveys of Diocletian: F. Millar (below, notes to pp. 192-3). Olive trees and vines valued at higher tax rate than grain: see notes to pp. 192-3. A detailed list of Syrian agricultural products found in textual sources is to be found in F. M. Heichelheim, ‘Roman Syria’, in T. Frank (ed.), An Economic Survey of Ancient Rome, (5 vols., Baltimore 1933-1940), vol. IV, pp. 121-257. Carion: J.-P. Rey-Coquais, Arados et sa Pérée, Paris, 1974, pp. 69, 86-8. Herod importing apples: H. M. Cotton, J. Geiger (eds), Masada II. The Yigael Yadin Excavations 1963-1965. Final Reports: The Greek and Latin Documents, Jerusalem, 1989, document no. 822.
P. 170-1 On livestock: A. King, ‘Diet in the Roman World: a regional inter-site comparison of the mammal bones’, Journal of Roman Archaeology 12 (1999), pp. 168-202; T. Williams, M. Monk, M. A. Murray, J. Rackham, ‘Preliminary Results of the Environmental Sampling Undertaken on the Souks Excavation (BEY 006), Beirut’, Berytus 43 (1997-1998), pp. 211-220. On nomads: R. Cribb, Nomads in Archaeology, Cambridge, 1991.
	P. 171-3 For olive presses see especially: O. Callot, Huileries antiques de Syrie du nord, Paris, 1984. For olive and wine presses in the south, see R. Frankel, ‘Presses for Oil and Wine in the Southern Levant in the Byzantine Period’, Dumbarton Oaks Papers 51 (1997), pp. 73-84.
	P. 173-4 Chhim: T. Waliszewski, ‘Chhim. Explorations, 2000’, Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean 10 (1999), pp. 297-306. The process of wine making is described by S. Kingsley, ‘The Economic Impact of the Palestinian Wine Trade in Late Antiquity’, in S. Kingsley, M. Decker (eds.), Economy and Exchange in the East Mediterranean during Late Antiquity, Oxford, 2001, pp. 44-68. Excellence of wines: see F. M. Heichelheim, ‘Roman Syria’ (above, notes to pp. 168-9). For a possible contender for the Laodicean wine amphora, see R. Tomber, ‘“Laodicean” Wine Containers in Roman Egypt’, in O. E. Kaper (ed.), Life on the Fringe. Living in the Southern Egyptian Deserts during the Roman and early Byzantine Periods, Leiden, 1998, pp. 213-219. Amphoras of Berytus: P. Reynolds, ‘The Beirut Amphora Type, 1st Century BC – 7th Century AD: An Outline of its Development and Some Preliminary Observations of Regional Economic Trends’, Rei Cretariae Romanae Fautorum Acta 36 (2000), pp. 387-395. On Gaza, see the article by Kingsley, above.
	P. 174 Specialized products: See Heichelheim, above, notes to pp. 168-9. The process of purple production is described by Pliny the Elder, Natural History 9.62.133. The estimate of how many murex were needed for a garment is to be found in D. S. Reese, ‘The Mediterranean Shell Purple-Dye Industry’, American Journal of Archaeology 90 (1986), p. 183.
	P. 176-7 Kaisariyeh at Shaqqa: H. C. Butler, Publications of an American Archaeological Expedition to Syria in 1899-1900 II, New York, 1903, pp. 370-5. Regional trade in basalt mills: O. Williams-Thorpe, R. S. Thorpe, ‘Geochemistry and Trade of Eastern Mediterranean Millstones from the Neolithic to Roman Period’, Journal of Archaeological Science 20 (1993), pp. 263-320. Mud brick at Dura Europus: A. Perkins, The Art of Doura-Europos, Oxford, 1973, pp. 10-32.
P. 178 Lebanon inscriptions: J.-F. Breton, Les inscriptions forestières d’Hadrien dans le Mont Liban, IGLS VIII.3, 1980.
P. 178-9 Mineral resources: see Heichelheim, above, notes to pp. 168-9. The Romans certainly exploited copper mines in the Wadi ‘Araba intensively: S. T. Parker, ‘Preliminary Report on the 1994 Season of the Roman Aqaba Project’, Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 305 (1997), pp. 19-44, at p. 40. Nabataean gold and silver: Strabo, Geography, 16.4.26.

Chapter 6: Portable Antiquities

Writings on the Roman economy and tax system abound. For general views relevant here, see: M. Rostovtzeff, The Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire, 2nd edition, revised by P. M. Fraser, Oxford, 1957; and M. I. Finley, The Ancient Economy, London, 1973. In spite of his ‘primitivist’ views of the Roman economy, the essays by A. H. M. Jones, The Roman Economy. Studies in Ancient Economic and Administrative History (ed. P. A. Brunt), Oxford, 1974, remain extremely valuable. More recent works include: P. Garnsey, K. Hopkins, C. R. Whittaker, Trade in the Ancient Economy, London, 1983; M. Fulford, ‘Economic interdependence among urban communities of the Roman Mediterranean’, World Archaeology 19 (1987), pp. 58-75; R. Duncan-Jones, Structure and Scale in the Roman Economy, Cambridge, 1990. A useful collection of recent views may be found in H. Parkins and C. Smith (eds.), Trade, Traders and the Ancient City, Routledge, 1998.
	For Syria in general, a detailed survey of the evidence from texts is provided by F. Heichelheim, ‘Roman Syria’ (above, notes to pp. 168-9). See also L. C. West, ‘Commercial Syria under the Roman Empire’, Transactions of the American Philosophical Association 55 (1924), pp. 159-189. These essays were written before much of the evidence presented in this chapter had been assembled and assessed. A more recent synthesis is provided by G. W. Bowersock, ‘Social and Economic History of Syria under the Roman Empire’, in J.-M. Dentzer, W. Orthmann (eds.), Archéologie et histoire de la Syrie, II, Saarbrcken, 1989, pp. 63-80. See also N. Pollard, Soldiers, Cities and Civilians in Roman Syria, Ann Arbor, 2000 (which contains excellent discussions of the Syrian economy); and Z. Safrai, The Economy of Roman Palestine, London, 1994.

	Pp. 181-2 The ‘primitivist’ and ‘modernist’ debate is summarized by K. Greene (above, notes to p. 148), pp. 11-16. Scale and complexity of trade: J. Paterson, ‘Trade and Traders in the Roman World’, in Parkin and Smith (see above), pp. 149-67.
	P. 183-4 Transport: R. Laurence, ‘Land Transport in Roman Italy’, in Parkin and Smith (see above), pp. 129-48. See also K. Greene (above, notes to p. 148), pp. 17-44.
Pp. 184-6 For Palmyra and the ‘caravan trade’: M. Rostovtzeff, Caravan Cities, Oxford, 1932; E. Will, ‘Marchands et chefs de caravanes à Palmyre’ Syria 1957, pp. 262-271; J. Teixidor, Un port romain (above, notes to pp. 108-21); J. F. Matthews, ‘The Tax Law of Palmyra: Evidence for Economic History in a City of the Roman East’, Journal of Roman Studies 74 (1984), pp. 157-180; M. G. Raschke, ‘New Studies in Roman Commerce with the East’, Aufstieg und Niedergang der rmischen Welt 2.9 (1978), pp. 604-1361, and G. W. Bowersock, ‘Social and Economic History of Syria’, above, general notes for this chapter. Important recent work includes J.-M. Dentzer, ‘Khans ou casernes à Palmyre’, Syria 71 (1994), pp. 45-112; J. Bylinski, ‘A IIIrd Century Open-Court Building in Palmyra. Excavation Report’, Damaszener Mitteilungen 8 (1995), pp. 213-46; J.-B. Yon, ‘Remarques sur une famille caravanière à Palmyre’, Syria 75 (1998), pp. 153-160, F. Millar, ‘Caravan Cities: the Roman Near East and Long Distance Trade by Land’, in M. Austin et al., Modus Operandi: Essays in Honour of Geoffrey Rickman, London, 1998, pp. 119-37; and G. Young, Rome’s Eastern Trade. International Commerce and Imperial Policy, 31 BC - AD 305, London-New York, 2001. A volume of Aram (8.1, 1996), is dedicated to trade routes in the region, as is a volume of Les Annales archéologiques arabes syriennes (42, 1996) entitled ‘Palmyra and the Silk Road’. Merchants and caravan chiefs: see J.-B. Yon, Les notables de Palmyre, Beirut, 2002, pp. 100-118. For the Palmyrene-style tomb on Kharg: R. Ghirshman, ‘L’ile de Kharg (Ikaros) dans le golfe persique’, Revue Archologique (1959), pp. 70-77. Roman imports to the Persian gulf: D. Potts, above, notes to p. 59. Palmyrenes at Berenice and other Red Sea ports: G. Young (above), pp. 80-82. Chinese silk from Palmyrene tombs: A. Stauffer, ‘Kleider, Kissen, bunte Tcher. Einheimische Textilproduktion und weltweiter Handel’, in A. Schmidt-Colinet (ed.), Palmyra. Kulturbegegnung im Grenzbereich, Mainz, 1995, pp. 57-71; and, by the same author, ‘Textiles from Palmyra. Local production and the import and imitation of Chinese silk weavings’, Les Annales archéologiques arabes syriennes 42 (1996), pp. 425-30.
P. 186 Berytus Bankers in Italy: see J. Lauffray (above, notes to pp. 108-21, under Berytus).
P. 187-8 Carrot amphora: P. Vipard, ‘Les amphores carottes (forme Schne-Mau XV). État de la question’, Actes de Congrès de Rouen, 1995, Marseilles, 1995, pp. 51-77. Pompeii 5 amphora: P. Reynolds, ‘Levantine Amphorae from Cilicia to Gaza: A Typology and Analysis of Regional Production from the 2nd to 6th Centuries’, First International Conference on Late Roman Coarse Wares, Cooking Wares and Amphorae in the Meditteranean, Barcelona, 2002, forthcoming. Eastern exports to the west: P. Reynolds, Trade in the Western Mediterranean, AD 400-700, Oxford, 1995.
Pp. 189-93 On the relationship of taxes to trade, see the seminal article by K. Hopkins, ‘Taxes and Trade in the Roman Empire (200 BC – AD 400)’, Journal of Roman Studies 70 (1980), pp. 101-125, and R. Duncan-Jones, Structure and Scale in the Roman Economy, Cambridge, 1990, especially pp. 30-46 and pp. 187-210, where the evidence for taxation in kind is examined. For Babatha and taxation in dates, see notes to pp. 142-5; the archive of Salome Komaise also contains a reference to this form of taxation.
P. 190 Gift of grain to Laodicea: W. Wroth, A Catalogue of Greek Coins in the British Museum. Catalogue of the Greek Coins of Galatia, Cappadocia, and Syria, London, 1899, p. 260, no. 94. Palmyra tariff: see below, notes to pp. 193-4.
P. 190-1 Types of direct taxation: Duncan-Jones, above, notes to pp. 183-93 (the problem of Appian’s statement regarding Syria is considered by Duncan-Jones on p. 189); F. Millar, The Roman Empire and its Neighbours, 2nd edition, London-New York, 1981, pp. 90-6. Census of Quirinius: above, notes to p. 106; see also notes to p. 79. Tacitus: Annals, 2.42.
P. 191 Portorium and the 25% duty: G. Young (above, notes to pp. 184-6).
P. 192-3 On the iugum in the Syro-Roman Lawbook, see A. Vbus, The Syro-Roman Lawbook, Stockholm, 1982; R. Duncan-Jones (above, notes to pp. 189-93), pp. 202-203; olives and seem to have been assessed by the number of trees rather than by area of land that they occupied. The cadastral stones of the Diocletianic surveyors are usefully gathered together by F. Millar, Roman Near East, Appendix I, pp. 535-544. Reversion to cash in the sixth century: S. Williams, G. Friell, The Rome That Did Not Fall. The Survival of the East in the Sixth Century, London, 1999, p. 204 (with references).
P. 193-4 The Palmyra tariff: J. F. Matthews, ‘The Tax Law of Palmyra: Evidence for Economic History in a City of the Roman East’, Journal of Roman Studies 74 (1984), pp. 157-180.
Pp. 194-201 On Roman pottery and exchange in general: J. Hayes, Late Roman Pottery, London, 1972, and Handbook of Mediterranean Roman Pottery, London, 1997; D. P. S. Peacock, Pottery in the Roman World: an Ethnoarchaeological Approach, London, 1982; P. Reynolds, Trade in the Western Mediterranean (above, notes to pp 187-8).
P. 195 Material from the Euphrates: N. Pollard, Soldiers, Cities and Civilians in Roman Syria, Ann Arbor, 2000, pp. 190-1, 226-7. Territorial distribution of amphoras: A. Berlin, ‘From Monarchy to Markets: The Phoenicians in Hellenistic Palestine’, Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 306 (1997), pp. 75-88. Nabataean pottery: P. Hammond, ‘A Classification of Nabataean Fine Ware’, American Journal of Archaeology 66 (1962), pp. 169-80; and, on the identification of a major kiln at Petra, K. ‘Amr, The Pottery from Petra. A Neutron Activation Analysis Study, Oxford, 1987.
P. 196 Beirut amphora: P. Reynolds, ‘The Beirut amphora type’ (above, notes to pp. 173-4). For Tyre, see P. Reynolds, ‘Pottery production and economic exchange’ (below, notes to pp. 196-9).
Pp. 196-9 On amphoras in general, see D. P. S. Peacock and D. F. Williams, Amphorae and the Roman economy. An introductory guide, London, 1986; and the publications by P. Reynolds, ‘Pottery production and economic exchange in 2nd century Berytus: some preliminary observations of ceramic trends from quantified ceramic deposits from the Anglo-Lebanese excavations in Beirut’, Berytus 43 (1997-1998), pp. 35-110; ‘Baetican, Lusitanian and Tarraconensian imports from the western Mediterranean in the Anglo-Lebanese excavations in Beirut (BEY 006, 007 and 045)’, Congreso Internacional ‘Ex Baetica Amphorae’, Universidad de Sevilla, 17-20 December 1998, Ecija, 2000 (see also notes to pp. 187-8 above); and S. Kingsley, ‘The Economic Impact of the Palestinian Wine Trade in Late Antiquity’, in S. Kingsley, M. Decker (eds.), Economy and Exchange in the East Mediterranean during Late Antiquity, Oxford, 2001, pp. 44-68.
P. 197 On the Beirut amphora and the stamp COL BER, see notes to pp. 173-4. On the wine of Berytus, see Heichelheim (above, notes to pp. 168-9).
P. 198-9 Late Roman Amphora 1: M. Decker, ‘Food for an Empire: Wine and Oil Production in North Syria’, in S. Kingsley, M. Decker (eds.), Economic Exchange in the Eastern Mediterranean during Late Antiquity, Oxford, 2001, pp. 69-86. Late Roman Amphora 4 and 5: Kingsley (above, notes to pp. 196-9. ‘Gazans’: Gazitoi or Gazitia: see, for example, the Nessana archive (see notes to pp. 142-5), and P. Mayerson, ‘The Gaza “Wine” Jar (Gazition) and the “Lost” Ashkelon Jar (Askalonion)’, Israel Exploration Journal 42 (1992), pp. 76-80.
P. 199 Caesarea levelling dump: P. Reynolds, personal communication.
Pp. 199-200 Coarse wares: for mortaria see J. W. Hayes, ‘North Syrian Mortaria’, Hesperia 36 (1967), pp. 337-47; M. Vallerin, ‘Pelves estampillés de Bassit’, Syria 71 (1994), pp. 141-204; for brittle ware, S. L. Dyson (above, notes to pp. 55-8).
P. 200-1 Eastern Sigillata A: An excellent discussion may be found in K. W. Slane, ‘The Fine Wares’, in S. C. Herbert (ed.), Tel Anafa 2.1: The Hellenistic and Roman Pottery, Ann Arbor, 1997, pp. 247-406. For the classification and dating of late Roman fine wares, see J. Hayes, Late Roman Pottery, London, 1972.
Pp. 201-2 On glass: S. Abdul-Hak, ‘Contribution d’une découverte archéologique rcente à l’étude de la verrerie syrienne à l’époque romaine’, Journal of Glass Studies 7 (1965), pp. 26-34; O. Dussart, Le verre en Jordanie et en Syrie du Sud, Beirut, 1998; M. O’Hea, ‘The glass industry of the Decapolis’, Aram 4 (1992), pp. 253-64. The Beth Shearim slab has recently been re-dated to the very end of the Roman or beginning of the early Islamic period: Y. Gorin-Rosen, ‘The Ancient Glass Industry in Israel: Summary of the Finds and New Discoveries’, in M.-D. Nenna (ed.), La route de verre: Ateliers primaires et secondaires du second millénaire av. J-C. au Moyen Age, Lyon, 2000, pp. 49-63. For the site of Jalame, see G. D. Weinberg (ed.), Excavations at Jalame. Site of a Glass Factory in Late Roman Palestine, Columbia, Missouri, 1988. Strictly speaking, ‘cullet’ is the term applied to recycled glass; ‘raw’ or ‘chunk’ glass is used by specialists to describe primary material. I have not made a distinction here. On ‘Sidonian’ glass: S. Jennings, ‘Late Hellenistic and Early Roman Glass from the Souks Excavations in Beirut, Lebanon’, Hyalos-Vitrumm-Glass, Athens, 2002, pp. 127-32.
Pp. 203-11 On marble: H. Dodge and B. Ward-Perkins (eds.), Marble in Antiquity. The Collected Papers of J. B. Ward-Perkins, London (British School at Rome), 1992; H. Dodge, ‘Palmyra and the Roman Marble Trade: Evidence from the Baths of Diocletian’, Levant 20 (1988), pp. 215-230; J. C. Fant, ‘The Roman Emperors in the Marble Business: Capitalists, Middle-Men or Philanthropists’, in N. Herz, M. Waelkens (eds.), Classical Marble: Geochemistry, Technology, Trade, Dordrecht-London-Boston, 1988, pp. 147-158; J. C. Fant (ed.), Ancient Marble Quarrying and Trade, Oxford, 1988; H. Dodge, ‘Ancient Marble Studies: Recent Research’, Journal of Roman Archaeology 4 (1991), pp. 28-50 (with extensive bibliography); L. Moshe Fischer, Marble Studies: Roman Palestine and the Marble Trade, Konstanz, 1998; O. Williams-Thorpe, M. M. Henty, ‘The Sources of Roman Granite Columns in Israel’, Levant 32 (2000), pp. 155-70. 
Pp. 204-5 On the architecture of Masada: Y. Yadin, Masada. Herod’s Fortress and the Zealots’ Last Stand, London, 1966; E. Netzer, Masada III, the Yigael Yadin Excavations 1963-1965, Final Reports. The Buildings, Stratigraphy and Architecture, Jerusalem, 1991; and G. Foerster, Masada V, Art and Architecture, Jerusalem, 1995. On Herodian palaces and their opus sectile floors: E. Netzer, Die Palste der Hasmonaer und Herodes des Grossen, Mainz, 1999.
Pp. 208-11 Sarcophagi: in general, see the paper by J. B. Ward-Perkins, ‘The Trade in Sarcophagi’, in H. Dodge and B. Ward-Perkins (eds.), Marble in Antiquity. The Collected Papers of J. B. Ward-Perkins, London, 1992, pp. 31-7; and for the Near East, G. Koch, ‘Der Import kaiserzeitlicher Sarkophage in den rmischen Provinzen Syria, Palstina und Arabia’, Bonner Jahrbcher 189 (1989), pp. 161-211. The Tyre necropolis: see the article by J. B. Ward-Perkins, ‘The Imported Sarcophagi of Roman Tyre’, in H. Dodge and B. Ward-Perkins (eds.), Marble in Antiquity, pp. 129-51. 
Pp. 211-12 On textiles: A. H. M. Jones, ‘The Cloth Industry under the Roman Empire’, in his The Roman Economy (see introductory bibliography for this chapter, above), pp. 350-364. Two studies of Syrian textiles are by R. Pfister: Textiles de Palmyre, Paris, 1934-1940; and Textiles de Halabiyeh (Zenobia), Paris, 1951. See also A. Stauffer, ‘Kleider, Kissen, bunte Tcher’ (notes to pp. 184-6, above).
P. 212 Diocletian’s Price Edict: the standard text with an English translation is E. Rose Graser, ‘The Edict of Diocletian on Maximum Prices’, in T. Frank, An Economic Survey of Ancient Rome, Vol. 5, Baltimore, 1940, pp. 307-421. More fragments of the edict have come to light since, but these are not particularly relevant here. House of Nebuchelus: P. Baur, M. Rostovtzeff, A. Bellinger (eds), The Excavations at Dura-Europos. Preliminary Report on the Fourth Season, 1930-31, New Haven, 1933, pp. 79-145.
Pp. 212-21 On coins: C. Augé, ‘La monnaie en Syrie à l’époque hellénistique et romaine’, J.-M. Dentzer, W. Orthmann (eds.), Archéologie et histoire de la Syrie, II, Saarbrcken, 1989, pp. 149-90; C. Morrisson, ‘La monnaie en Syrie byzantine’, in the same volume, pp. 191-204; K. Butcher, ‘Coinage and Currency in Syria and Palestine to the Reign of Gallienus’, in C. E. King, D. G. Wigg (eds.), Coin Finds and Coin Use in the Roman World, Berlin, 1996, pp. 101-112; and Coinage in Roman Syria, London, 2003; K. W. Harl, Civic Coins and Civic Politics in the Roman East, Berkeley, 1987; C. Augé, F. Duyrat (eds.), Les monnayages syriens. Quel apport pour l’histoire du Proche-Orient hellénistique et romain? Actes de la table ronde de Damas, 10-12 novembre 1999, Beirut, 2002. Standard catalogues include the Catalogues of Greek Coins in the British Museum (BMC: various authors, 1873-1927), of which four volumes (Galatia, Cappadocia, and Syria, London, 1899; Phoenicia, London, 1910; Palestine, London, 1914; and Arabia, Mesopotamia, and Persia, London, 1922) provide a general view of the provincial and civic coinages of the area; readers should be aware, however, that these do not constitute a complete listing of types and issues. Comprehensive lists are to be found in A. M. Burnett, M. Amandry et al., Roman Provincial Coinage (RPC), of which two volumes (London-Paris, 1992; 1999) have appeared.
P. 213 Dura Mithraeum: on the interpretation of the value marks in this inscription, see K. Butcher, Coinage in Roman Syria, London, 2003.
P. 215 Coinages of Laodicea and Aradus: F. de Callataÿ, L’histoire des guerres mithridatiques vue par les monnaies, Louvain-la-Neuve, 1997. Tyrian tetradrachms: D. R. Walker, The Metrology of the Roman Silver Coinage, Vol. 1, Oxford, pp. 70-3; B. Levy, ‘Tyrian Shekels: The Myth of the Jerusalem Mint’, SAN: Journal of the Society for Ancient Numismatics 19.2 (1995), pp. 33-5. 
P. 216 One mint striking silver for another: K. Butcher, M. Ponting, ‘Rome and the East. Production of Roman Provincial Silver Coinage for Caesarea in Cappadocia under Vespasian, AD 69-70’, Oxford Journal of Archaeology 14 (1995), pp. 63-77.
P. 218 Greek value marks: K. Butcher, Coinage in Roman Syria, London, 2003. For the notion of coin types as monuments, see A. Meadows, J. Williams, ‘Moneta and Monuments: Coinage and Politics in Republican Rome’, Journal of Roman Studies 91 (2001), pp. 27-49. On the question of who coin types were intended to address, see K. Butcher, ‘Information, legitimation or self-legitimation? Popular and Elite Designs on the Coin Types of Roman Syria’, in A. Burnett, V. Heuchert, C. Howgego (eds), Coinage and Identity in the Roman Provinces, Oxford, forthcoming.
P. 219 Trader moving between Berytus and Brundisium: R. Duncan-Jones, Structure and Scale in the Roman Economy, Cambridge, 1990, p. 42.
Pp. 220-1 Useful summaries of late Roman and Byzantine coins in Syria are provided by Augé and Morrisson, (above, notes to pp. 212-21). For the coastal cities opting out of the post-512 system, see K. Butcher, ‘Coinage in Sixth Century Beirut’, Berytus 43 (1997-8), pp. 173-80; and, by the same author, Small Change in Ancient Beirut (above, notes to p. 30). For coins of Constans II and imitations, good illustrations and a sound discussion may be found in T. Goodwin, M. Phillips, ‘A seventh-century Syrian hoard of Byzantine and imitative copper coins’, Numismatic Chronicle 157 (1997), pp. 61-87, and for Arab-Byzantine coinage, S. Qedar, ‘Copper Coinage of Syria in the Seventh and Eighth Century AD’, Israel Numismatic Journal 10 (1988-9), pp. 27-39; and M. Bates, ‘Byzantine Coinage and its Imitations, Arab Coinage and its Imitations: Arab-Byzantine Coinage’, Aram 6 (1994), pp. 381-403.
P. 222 Denarii of Vespasian: see K. Butcher, M. Ponting (notes to p. 216, above).

Chapter 7: Public Values

On ancient cities in general: A. H. M. Jones, The Greek City from Alexander to Justinian, Oxford, 1940; J. Rykwert, The Idea of a Town. The Anthropology of the Urban Form in Rome, Italy and the Ancient World, London, 1976; R. T. Marchese (ed.), Aspects of Greek and Roman Urbanism, Oxford, 1983. E. J. Owens, The City in the Greek and Roman World, London, 1992; H. Parkins, Roman Urbanism, London, 1997. For an outline of civic development in the eastern empire: S. Mitchell, Anatolia. Land, Men, and Gods in Asia Minor, Volume 1. The Celts and the Impact of Roman Rule, Oxford, 1993, pp. 198-226.
On the region: H. C. Butler, Architecture and Other Arts (Part II of the Publications of an American Archaeological Expedition to Syria in 1899-1900), New York, 1903; Architecture and Other Arts (Part II of the Publications of the Princeton University Archaeological Expeditions), Leiden, 1907; J. Lauffray, ‘L’urbanisme antique au Proche-Orient’, Proceedings of the Second International Congress of Classical Studies, vol. IV, Copenhagen 1958, pp. 7-26; E. Will, ‘Les villes de la Syrie à l’époque hellénistique et romaine’, in J.-M. Dentzer, W. Orthmann (eds), Archéologie et histoire de la Syrie II, pp. 223-250; D. Sperber, The City in Roman Palestine, Oxford, 1998; M. Sartre, D’Alexandre à Zénobie, pp. 639-733.
For the architecture at individual sites, see bibliography for chapter 3 as well as those cited below, to which add the following works. Apamea: J.-Ch. Balty (ed.), Apamée de Syrie. Bilan des recherches archéologiques 1965-1968, Brussels, 1969; 1969-1971, Brussels 1972; 1973-1979, Brussels, 1984. Cyrrhus: E. Frézouls, ‘Cyrrhus et la Cyrrhestique jusqu’à la fin du Haut-Empire’, Aufstieg und Niedergang der rmischen Welt II.8, pp. 164-97.

	P. 224 The Greek polis as a model: this should not be taken to mean that in social terms all Syrian cities were identical, or that there were no Semitic elements to the culture(s) of their populations. The evidence currently does not permit such assertions to be made. See notes to p. 26.
	P. 225-7 Civic government: F. Millar, The Roman Empire and its Neighbours, p. 87. For the region, see J. M. C. Bowsher, ‘Civic Organization within the Decapolis’, Aram 4 (1992), pp. 265-81; M. Sartre, ‘Vie municipale et intégration des notables dans la Syrie et l’Arabie romaines’, Antiquitas 22 (1997), pp. 153-74, and, by the same author, D’Alexandre à Zénobie, pp. 649-54. It must be admitted that we have very little evidence for the workings of civic government in Syria and the Near East, and therefore it is assumed that the basic pattern follows civic government in other regions - that is, with a hereditary class of elite councillors dominating civic affairs. Excavations have revealed a bouleterion (council chamber) in several cities: for example, Dura Europus; Dionysias; Gerasa; Petra. In the Hauran many councillors seem to have resided in their home villages rather than in the city itself. Some scholars would question whether all Syrian cities had the constitutional trappings of a Greek city: see D. Graf, ‘Hellenisation and the Decapolis’ (above, notes to pp. 25-31). Even where there is evidence, the nature of the officials and institutions continues to be contested: see, for example, the comments of M. Sartre, ‘Palmyre, cité grecque’, Les Annales archéologiques arabes syriennes 42 (1996), pp. 385-405.
P. 226 The search for benefactors: Augustus served as a high priest at Antioch. See W. Wroth, A Catalogue of Greek Coins in the British Museum. Catalogue of the Greek Coins of Galatia, Cappadocia, and Syria, London, 1899, p. 167-168, where the coins record that: ‘the Antiochenes bestowed the high priesthood on Caesar Augustus the high priest’. King Herod donated gifts to many cities outside his kingdom. See, for example, Josephus, The Jewish War, 1.422-5; D. W. Roller, The Building Program of Herod the Great, Berkeley, 1998. Monumental writing as a monument: G. Woolf, ‘Monumental Writing and the Expansion of Roman Society in the Early Empire’, Journal of Roman Studies 86 (1996), pp. 22-39. On Lucius Julius Agrippa: J.-P. Rey-Coquais, ‘Inscriptions grecques d’Apamée’, Les Annales archéologiques arabes syriennes 23 (1973), pp. 39-84. 
P. 227 Work on the canal at Antioch is discussed by D. Feissel (above, notes to pp.163-4).
	P. 228 Lack of public buildings in Hellenistic times: G. Bowersock, ‘Social and Economic History’ (above, notes to pp. 138-40), at p. 65. The early street at Apamea is described by J.-Ch. Balty, ‘Grande colonnade et quartiers nord d’Apamée à la fin de l’époque hellénistique’, Comptes- rendus de l’Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres 1994, pp. 77-101. 
	P. 228-9 Civic festivals as an alternative: S. Mitchell, Anatolia, Oxford, 1993, pp. 217-25. On the evolution of festivals: M. Sartre, L’Orient Romain, Paris,1991, p. 343. Palmyra and many Arabian cities not holding festivals: F. Millar, The Roman Near East, p. 329, 425. As Millar points out, this may be a consequence of the poverty of our evidence.
Pp. 229-34 On Roman colonies, the fundamental study is F. Millar, ‘The Roman Coloniae of the Near East: a Study of Cultural Relations’, in H. Solin, M. Kajava (eds.), Roman Eastern Policy and Other Studies in Roman History. Proceedings of a Colloquium at Tvärminne, 2-3 October 1987, Helsinki, 1990, pp. 7-58. 
P. 230-1 The urban plan of Berytus: K. Butcher, R. Thorpe, ‘A Note on Excavations in Central Beirut 1994-96’, Journal of Roman Archaeology 10 (1997), pp. 291-306. For the pagus augustus, see J.-P. Rey-Coquais, ‘Des montagnes au désert: Baetocécé, la Pagus Augustus de Niha, la Ghouta à l’est de Damas’, in E. Frézouls (ed.), Sociétés urbaines, sociétés rurales dans l’Asie Mineure et la Syrie hellénistiques et romaines, Strasbourg, 1987. Exotic Roman cults at Berytus: see comments by F. Millar, The Roman Near East, pp. 280-1. Roman law at Berytus: P. Collinet, Histoire de l’école de droit de Beyrouth, Paris, 1925; H. I. MacAdam, ‘Studia et Circenses: Beirut’s Roman Law School in its Colonial, Cultural Context’, Aram 13-14 (2001), pp. 193-226. 
P. 232 Inscription of Philippopolis: R. Cagnat et al., Inscriptiones graecae ad res romanas pertinentes, vol. III, Paris, 1906, no. 1196. Civic coins of Philippopolis were produced after Philip’s son had been elevated to co-emperor in AD 246/7; they were probably made at Antioch, and share obverse dies with other cities: see K. Butcher, ‘The Colonial Coinage of Antioch-on-the-Orontes, c. AD 218-53’, Numismatic Chronicle 148 (1988), pp. 63-75. Laodicea using Latin letters to write Greek: COL. LAOD. METROPOLEOS (W. Wroth, A Catalogue of Greek Coins in the British Museum. Catalogue of the Greek Coins of Galatia, Cappadocia, and Syria, London, 1899, pp. 261-263).
Pp. 233-4 For Philippopolis, see H. C. Butler, Architecture and Other Arts. Part II of the Publications of an American Archaeological Expedition to Syria in 1899-1900, New York, 1903, pp. 376-396; and K. S. Freyberger, ‘Die Bauten und Bildwerke von Philippopolis. Zeugnisse imperialer und orientalischer Selbstdarstellung der Familie des Kaisers Philippus Arabs’, Damaszener Mitteilungen 6 (1992), pp. 293-311. Its sanctuary of the imperial cult is described by Gh. Amer, M. Gawlikowski, Damaszener Mitteilungen 2 (1985), pp. 1-15. 
	Pp. 234-6 City boundaries: the boundary stone between Emesa and Palmyra is published by D. Schlumberger, ‘Bornes frontières de la Palmyrène’, Syria 20 (1939), pp. 43-73. The boundary between Antioch and Apamea is discussed by H. Seyrig, ‘Inscriptions grecques’, in G. Tchalenko (above, notes to pp. 145-53), vol. 3, Paris, 1958, pp. 2-62, with map at p. 57. For Latin inscriptions in the Bekaa: J.-P. Rey-Coquais, Inscriptions Grecques et Latines de la Syrie, Tome VI. Baalbek et Beqa‘, Paris, 1967; C. Ghadban, ‘Les frontières du territoire d’Héliopolis-Baalbek à la lumière de nouveaux documents’, in T. Fahd (ed.), La géographie administrative et politique d’Alexandre à Mahomet, Leiden, 1982, pp. 143-68.
	Pp. 236-7 Tyche: T. Dohrn, Die Tyche von Antiochia, Berlin, 1960; R. Gersht, ‘The Tyche of Caesarea Maritima’, Palestine Exploration Quarterly 116 (1984), pp. 110-114; K. Parlasca, ‘Die Stadtgttin Palmyras’, Bonner Jahrbcher 184 (1984), pp. 167-76. For the Gad of Dura, see M. I. Rostovtzeff, F. E. Brown, C. B. Welles, The Excavations at Dura-Europos. Preliminary Report of the Seventh and Eighth Seasons, New Haven, 1939, pp. 258-260 and 277-8. Another scene which almost certainly shows Seleucus Nicator founding a city is discussed by H. Seyrig, ‘Scène historique sur un chapiteau du Musée de Beyrouth’, Revue des Etudes Anciennes 42 (1940), pp. 340-4. The Balanea inscription is discussed by R. Fleischer, ‘Die Tychegruppe von Balanea-Leukas in Syrien’, Archologischer Anzeiger 1986, pp. 707-709. For the Aere Tychaion: E. Littmann, D. Magie, D. R. Stuart, Publications of the Princeton University Archaeological Expeditions A.5. Greek and Latin Inscriptions in Syria, Leiden, 1915, pp. 290-292, no. 652; K. S. Freyberger, ‘Das Tychaon von as-Sanamein’, Damaszener Mitteilungen 4 (1989), pp. 87-108.
	Pp. 237-59 Buildings: A. Segal, From Function to Monument. Urban Landscapes of Roman Palestine, Syria and Provincia Arabia, Oxford, 1997; W. Ball, Rome in the East, London, 2000.
	P. 239 Pollution of death: In some cities, such as Palmyra, the separation of the living from the dead was less rigorous than in the typical Greek-style city, hinting a different attitudes towards the defunct. 
P. 240 Hellenistic palaces: I. Nielsen, Hellenistic Palaces, Aarhus, 1994. For Herodian palaces, see notes to pp. 204-5.
Pp. 240-2 Urban plans: J. Sauvaget, ‘Le plan de Laodicée-sur-Mer’, Bulletin d’études orientales de l’Institut franais de Damas 4 (1934), pp. 81-114; D. van Berchem, ‘Le plan de Palmyre’ in Palmyre. Bilan et Perspectives, Travaux du Centre de recherche sur le Proche-Orient et la Grèce antiques 3, Strasbourg, 1976, pp. 165-73; A. S. Barghouti, ‘Urbanization of Palestine and Jordan in Hellenistic and Roman Times’, Studies in the History and Archaeology of Jordan I, Amman, 1982, pp. 209-229; F. E. Peters, ‘City Planning in Greco-Roman Syria: Some New Considerations’, Damaszener Mitteilungen 1 (1983) pp. 269-277; E. Will, ‘Le développement urbain de Palmyre’, Syria 60 (1983), pp. 69-81; A. Segal, Town Planning and Architecture in Provincia Arabia, Oxford, 1988.
P. 240 Looking to non-Greek traditions: see especially W. Ball, Rome in the East, London, 2000. 
P. 241 Sizes of city blocks: Sauvaget, above, notes to pp. 240-2. Antioch’s city blocks: Leblanc and Poccardi, above, notes to pp. 168-9. Berytus: K. Butcher, R. Thorpe (above, notes to pp. 230-1); D. Perring, ‘Excavations in the Souks of Beirut’, Berytus 43 (1997-8), pp. 9-34. Ptolemaic and Nabataean designs: see F. E. Peters, notes to pp. 240-2, above; but note also J.-M. Dentzer, ‘Les sondages de l’arc nabatéen et l’urbanisme de Bostra’, Comptes rendus de l’Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres, 1986, pp. 62-87.
Pp. 242 Irregularities of terrain a constraint on orthogonal layout: see comments of Y. Tsafrir, G. Foerster, ‘Urbanism at Scythopolis’ (above, notes to pp. 108-21).
Pp. 242-3 Walls: Note the interesting inscriptions of the mid- to later-third century from Adraa in Arabia, recording the building of fortifications through an imperial ‘gift’: H.-G. Pflaum, ‘La fortification de la ville d’Adraha d’Arabie (259-260 à 274-275) d’après les inscriptions récemment découvertes’, Syria 29 (1959), pp. 307-30. Apamea’s walls: J. D. Grainger, The Cities of Seleukid Syria, Oxford, 1990, pp. 82-3.  Palmyra’s walls: M. Gawlikowski, ‘Les défenses de Palmyre’, Syria 51 (1974), pp. 231-42.
Pp. 244-51 For colonnaded streets see the works of J. Lassus, Les portiques d’Antioche, (Antioch-on-the-Orontes Report V), Princeton, 1972; ‘Quelques remarques sur les rues à portiques’, in Palmyre. Bilan et perspectives, Strasbourg 1974, pp. 175-190; also Segal (above, notes to pp. 237-59), pp. 5-53. Other relevant studies: M. Broshi, ‘Standards of street widths in the Roman-Byzantine period’, Israel Exploration Journal 27 (1977), pp. 232-5.
Pp. 244-5 Apamea’s cardo: ‘Apamea in Syria in the Second and Third Centuries AD’, Journal of Roman Studies 78 (1988), pp. 91-104. Antioch’s street: J. Lassus, Les portiques d’Antioche (above, notes to pp. 244-51). Gerasa: R. Khouri, Jerash. A Frontier City of the Roman East, London-New York 1986, pp. 67-9.
Pp. 245-6 Palmyra’s colonnade: van Berchem, above, notes to pp. 240-2; but see now M. Baranski, ‘The Great Colonnade of Palmyra Reconsidered’, Aram 7 (1995), pp. 37-46. It would now appear that the central part of the colonnade, around the area of the theatre, was the last part to be constructed. Work began at the western end of the colonnade in the mid-second century, and at the eastern end in the late second, but the central part was not completed until the mid-third or later.
P. 247 Colonnades as an extension of the agora (likened to a souk or bazaar): E. Will, ‘Les villes de la Syrie à l’époque hellénistique et romaine’, in J.-M. Dentzer, W. Orthmann (eds), Archéologie et histoire de la Syrie II, pp. 223-250, at pp. 244-5. Roofing over streets suggested by W. Ball, Rome in the East (above, notes to p. 240), pp. 271, 274.
P. 248-9 Arches: A. L. Frothingham, ‘The Roman Territorial Arch’, American Journal of Archaeology 19 (1915), pp. 155-74; F. S. Kleiner, ‘The Study of Roman Triumphal and Honorary Arches 50 Years after Kahler’, Journal of Roman Archaeology 2 (1988), pp. 195-206. Arch at Dura Europus: M. Pillet, ‘The Triumphal Arch’, in P. Bauer, M. Rostovtzeff, A. Bellinger, The Excavations at Dura-Europos. Preliminary Report of the Fourth Season, 1930-1931, New Haven, 1933, pp. 3-4. Church at Bab el-Hawa: I am grateful to P.-L. Gatier (personal communication) for this information.
P. 249 For nymphaea, see A. Segal, From Function to Monument, pp. 151-68, and for the nyphaeum as an opportunity for self-advertisement, see S. Walker, ‘Roman Nymphaea in the Greek World’, in S. Macready, F. H. Thompson, Roman Architecture in the Greek World, London, 1987, pp. 60-71. Apamea latrine: J.-Ch. Balty, Guide d’Apamée, Brussells, 1981, pp. 77-8. 
P. 250 Gerasa street monuments: R. Khouri (above, notes to pp. 244-5) provides a good general outline; R. Parapetti, ‘Architectural and Urban Space in Roman Gerasa’, Mesopotamia 18-19 (1983-4), pp. 37-84. The cardo at Jerusalem: A. Segal, From Function to Monument, Oxford, 1997, pp. 41-4. Justinianic tetrakionion: J.-Ch. Balty, ‘Tetrakionia de l’époque de Justinien sur la grande colonnade d’Apamée’, Syria 77 (2000), pp. 227-237.
P. 252 The agora at Palmyra: H. Seyrig, ‘Rapport sommaire sur les fouilles de l’agora de Palmyre’, Comptes rendus de l’Acadmie des inscriptions et des belles-lettres (1940), pp. 237-49; Kh. As‘ad, J.-B. Yon, Inscriptions de Palmyre, Beirut-Damascus-Amman, 2001, pp. 56-61. 
P. 253 Monumental setting for sculpture: see Amer and Gawlikowski, (above, notes to pp. 233-4). Paradeisos: A.-L. Bedal, ‘A Paradeisos at Petra: New Light on the “Lower Market”, Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan 43 (1999), pp. 227-39. Gardens in Hellenistic palaces: see in general I. Nielsen, Hellenistic Palaces, Aarhus, 1994.
P. 254-5 Basilica at Sebaste: J. W. Crowfoot, K. M. Kenyon, E. L. Sukenik, The Buildings at Samaria, London, 1942. Basilicas at Canatha: Gh. Amer, J.-L. Biscop, J. Dentzer-Feydy, J.-P. Sodini, ‘L’ensemble basilical de Qanawat (Syrie du sud)’, Syria 59 (1982), pp. 257-318.
Pp. 255-9 Entertainment and assemblies: J.-Ch. Balty, Curia Ordinis. Recherches d’architecture et d’urbanisme antique sur les curies provinciales du monde romain, Brussels, 1991. For Marathus, see N. Salibi, ‘Amrit’, in J.-M. Dentzer, W. Orthmann (eds.), Archéologie et histoire de la Syrie, II, Saarbrcken, 1989, pp. 19-30. On theatres, see E. Frézouls, ‘Recherches sur les thétres de l’Orient syrien’, Syria 36 (1959), pp. 202-28 and 38 (1961), pp. 54-86; and, by the same author, ‘Les édifices des spectacles en Syrie’, in Dentzer and Orthmann, pp. 385-406. See also A. Segal, Theatres in Roman Palestine and Provincia Arabia, Leiden, 1995. The theatre at Philippopolis is the subject of a study by P. Coupel, E. Frézouls, Le thtre de Philippopolis en Arabie, Paris, 1956. The north theatre at Gerasa: V. Clark et al., ‘The Jerash North Theatre: Architecture and Archaeology 1982-1983’, in F. Zayadine (ed.), Jerash Archaeological Project, Amman, 1983. Arena at Tyre: M. Chehab, ‘Tyr à l’époque romaine’, Mélanges de l’Université Saint Joseph 38 (1962), pp. 13-40. Caesarea: Y. Porath, ‘Herod’s “amphitheatre” at Caesarea: a multipurpose entertainment building’, in J. Humphrey (ed.), The Roman and Byzantine Near East: Some Recent Archaeological Research, Ann Arbor, 1995, pp. 15-27. On the Dura Europus ‘odeum’: P. Leriche, ‘Salle à gradins du temple d’Artémis à Doura-Europos’, Topoi 9 (1999), pp. 725-6; ‘Doura-Europos. Bilan de la campagne 1998’, Les Annales archéologiques arabes syriennes 44 (2001), pp. 107-30, at pp. 113-5. Baths: F. Yegl, Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity, New York-Cambridge, Mass.-London, 1992. Kifrin’s bath: above, notes to pp. 55-8. Bath at Serjilla: G. Charpentier, ‘Les bains de Sergilla’, Syria 71 (1994), pp. 113-142.
Pp. 259-61 Dura-Europus: See above, notes to pp. 108-21. P. Leriche (above, notes to p. 30) has proposed that the original foundation of Seleucus I was a small settlement around the fortified citadel, and that the formal plan and enlargement of the city occurred in the mid-second century BC. For social structure and lack of monumentality at Dura, see A. J. Wharton, Refiguring the Post Classical City. Dura Europos, Jerash, Jerusalem and Ravenna, Cambridge, 1995.
Pp. 261-9 On the late antique city, see in particular J. H. W. G. Liebeschuetz, The Decline and Fall of the Ancient City, Oxford, 2001. Other important work includes S. J. B. Barnish, ‘The Transformation of Classical Cities and the Pirenne Debate’, Journal of Roman Archaeology 2 (1989), pp. 385-400; W. Liebeschuetz, ‘The End of the Ancient City’, in J. Rich (ed.), The City in Late Antiquity, London, 1992, pp. 1-49; L. Di Segni, ‘The involvement of local, municipal and provincial authorities in urban building in late antique Palestine and Arabia’, in J. H. Humphrey (ed.), The Roman and Byzantine Near East: Some Recent Archaeological Research, Ann Arbor, 1995, pp. 312-332; C. Foss, ‘Syria in Transition, AD 550-750: An Archaeological Approach’, Dumbarton Oaks Papers 51 (1997), pp. 190-269; L. Lavan, Recent Research in Late Antique Urbanism, Portsmouth, Rhode Island, 2001.
P. 262 Caracalla and the citizen of Byblus: R. Duncan-Jones, Structure and Scale in the Roman Economy, Cambridge, 1990, p. 167. Restrictions on the movement of councillors: Theodosian Code 12.18.1-2. Until AD 386 councillors could freely sell their ancestral property, on which their membership of the council depended, and in this rather drastic way escape the burdens: Liebeschuetz, Antioch, Oxford, 1972, pp. 182-6. Councillors might even by whipped for failing in their duties: Liebeschuetz, Antioch, pp. 166 and 173.
Pp. 262-3 I have used the term ‘grandees’ here rather than ‘elites’, to avoid confusion with the civic elites of the early Roman period. On the grandees’ role in city government, I have followed Liebeschuetz, The Decline and Fall of the Ancient City, pp. 104-24.
P. 264 The end of Greek festivals: Liebeschuetz, Antioch, p. 140, noting that by the third quarter of the fourth century only Antioch and Apamea seem to have had sacred games. The Olympic Games of Antioch survived into the sixth century, long after the original Olympics of Greece had been suppressed. Factions: Liebeschuetz, The Decline and Fall of the Ancient City, pp. 203-20. The Tyre hippodrome ‘clubs’: J.-P. Rey-Coquais, ‘Inscriptions de l’hippodrome de Tyr’, Journal of Roman Archaeology 15 (2002), pp. 325-335. Public building: see L. Di Segni (above, notes to pp. 261-9). Elusa’s theatre: F. Millar, The Roman Near East, p. 425 note 47.
Pp. 264-6 Evidence for change: see above, notes to pp. 261-9, and below, notes to pp. 424-5. Re-employment of inscriptions to Agrippa: J.-Ch. Balty, Guide d’Apamée, p. 205. Berytus houses: D. Perring (above, notes to p. 241), p. 30. Gerasa: the evidence is summarized in Liebeschuetz, Decline and Fall, pp. 61-2.
Pp. 266-9 Cities that developed in late Roman times. Procopius: B. Croke, J. Crow, ‘Procopius and Dara’, Journal of Roman Studies 73 (1983), pp. 143-159. For Sergiopolis/Resafa, see J. Sauvaget, ‘Les Ghassanids et Sergiopolis’, Byzantion 14 (1939), pp. 115-30; W. Karnapp, Die Stadtmauer von Resafa in Syrien, Berlin, 1976; T. Ulbert, ‘Rusafa-Sergiopolis: pilgrimage shrine and capital’, in H. Weiss (ed.), Ebla to Damascus, Washington DC, 1985, pp. 452-6; and, by the same author, ‘Villes et fortifications de l’Euphrate à l’époque paléo-chrétienne’, in J.-M. Dentzer, W. Orthmann (eds.), Archéologie et histoire de la Syrie, II, Saarbrcken, 1989, pp. 283-93. For Zenobia, see the splendid study by J. Lauffray, Halabiyya-Zenobia, place forte du limes oriental et la Haute-Mésopotamie au VIe siècle, 2 vols, Paris, 1983-1991. The fortress is considered one of ‘a number of sees which were not civil units’ in A. H. M. Jones, Cities of the Eastern Roman Provinces, Oxford, 1971, p. 460; but Lauffray’s work would seem to refute this.

Chapter 8: Impure Genres

	The quest for identities and cultural traditions is a major theme in F. Millar, The Roman Near East, and in several other important studies by the same author: ‘The Phoenician Cities: a case-study of Hellenisation’, Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society 219 (1983), pp. 55-71; ‘The Problem of Hellenistic Syria’, in A. Kuhrt, S. Sherwin-White, Hellenism in the East, London, 1987, pp. 110-33; ‘Empire, Community and Culture in the Roman Near East: Greeks, Syrian, Jews and Arabs’, Journal of Jewish Studies 38 (1987), pp. 143-64; ‘Ethnic Identity in the Roman Near East, 325-450: Language, Religion, and Culture’, Mediterranean Archaeology 11 (1999-2000), pp. 159-176. Other studies of the Near East include C. Dauphin, La Palestine byzantine: Peuplement et populations, Oxford, 1998.
For an overview of the region’s contribution to classical culture, see E. Will, ‘La Syrie  l’époque hellénistique et romaine: mille ans de vie intellectuelle et artistique’, in J.-M. Dentzer, W. Orthmann (eds.), Archéologie et histoire de la Syrie, II, Saarbrcken, 1989, pp. 567-79; and M. Sartre, D’Alexandre à Zénobie, pp. 867-77.
For some theoretical approaches to identity and culture: Frederik Barth (ed.), Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social Organisation of Culture Difference, Oslo, 1969; A. P. Cohen, The Symbolic Construction of Community, London, 1985; T. H. Eriksen, Ethnicity and Nationalism. Anthropological Perspectives, London, 1993; R. Jenkins, Social Identity, London, 1996. For applications of anthropological and social theories to the Roman world, see J. Webster, N. Cooper, Roman Imperialism. Post-Colonial Perspectives, Leicester, 1996; R. Laurence, J. Berry (eds.), Cultural Identity in the Roman Empire, London, 1998. See also the essays in S. Mitchell, G. Greatrex (eds), Ethnicity and Culture in Late Antiquity, London-Swansea, 2000.

P. 270-2 Syria, Syrians: T. Noldeke, ‘ASSURIOS SURIOS SUROS’, Hermes 5 (1871), pp. 443-68; F. Cumont, ‘The Population of Syria’, Journal of Roman Studies 24 (1934), pp. 187-190; R. N. Frye, ‘Assyria and Syria: Synonyms’, Journal of Near Eastern Studies 51 (1992), pp. 281-5. Antioch’s corrupting influence: see, for example, E. L. Wheeler, ‘The Laxity of the Syrian Legions’, in D. Kennedy (ed.), The Roman Army in the East, Ann Arbor, 1992, pp. 229-76; and, for some general remarks on ancient prejudices, B. Isaac, The Limits of Empire, Oxford, 1990, p. 21, note 8; and M. Sartre, D’Alexandre à Zénobie, pp. 850-1. Strabo on Syrians and Assyrians: 16.1.1-2. Arabs: D. S. Potter, Prophecy and History, pp. 216-218; F. Millar, The Roman Near East, pp. 512-514; J. F. Healey, ‘Were the Nabataeans Arabs?’, Aram 1 (1989), pp. 38-44; D. F. Graf, ‘The Origin of the Nabataeans’, Aram 2 (1990), pp. 45-75. Arab from Canatha: L. Robert, ‘L’épitaphe d’un Arabe à Thasos’, Hellenica II (1946), p. 47; F. Millar, The Roman Near East, pp. 419-20. The appellation may be because the city of Septimia Canatha was in the province of Arabia (I am grateful to Alexander Hourany for this suggestion). Ethnic identity at Palmyra: J.-B. Yon, Les notables de Palmyre, Beirut, 2002, pp. 57-97.
	P. 272 Three zones of material culture: M. Gawlikowski, ‘Some Directions and Perspectives of Research’, Mesopotamia 22 (1987), pp. 11-17.
	Pp. 273-7 On Hellenism and the Second Sophistic: G. Anderson, The Second Sophistic: A Cultural Phenomenon in the Roman Empire, London, 1993; S. Swain, Hellenism and Empire: Language, Classicism and Power in the Greek World, AD 50-250, Oxford, 1996. For the argument that Hellenism was a bonding cultural force, see the essays by G. W. Bowersock, Hellenism in Late Antiquity, Cambridge, 1990. See also G. Woolf, ‘Becoming Roman, Staying Greek: Culture, Identity, and the Civilizing Process in the Roman East’, Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society 40 (1994), pp. 116-143.
	P. 274 For the evidence from papyri, see notes to pp. 142-5, above.
	Pp. 275-6 Judaism and Hellenism: see especially A. Momigliano, Alien Wisdom. The Limits of Hellenization, Cambridge, 1975; M. Hengel, The ‘Hellenization’ of Judaea in the First Century after Christ, London-Philadelphia, 1989; and F. Millar, The Roman Near East, pp. 353-74.
	P. 276 Medaba mosaics: M. Avi-Yonah, The Madaba Mosaic Map, Jerusalem, 1954. Sarrn: J. Balty, below, notes to pp. 324-5. Malalas: E. Jeffreys, M. Jeffreys, R. Scott et al., The Chronicle of John Malalas. A Translation, Melbourne, 1986.
	P. 278 The population of Dura Europus: C. B. Welles, ‘The Population of Roman Dura’, in P. R. Coleman-Norton (ed.), Studies in Roman Economic and Social History in Honor of A. C. Johnson, Princeton, 1951, pp. 251-74; E. Will, ‘La population de Doura-Europos: une évaluation’, Syria 65 (1988), pp. 315-21. Hellenism and other identities in the Decapolis: P.-L. Gatier, ‘À propos de la culture grecque à Gérasa’, in A. Invernizzi, J.-F. Salles (eds), Arabia Antiqua. Hellenistic Centres around Arabia, Rome, 1993, pp. 15-35; D. Kennedy, ‘The identity of Roman Gerasa: an archaeological approach’, in G. W. Clarke, D. Harrison (eds.) Identities in the Eastern Mediterranean in Antiquity. Proceedings of a Conference held at the Humanities Research Centre in Canberra, 10-12 November, 1997. Mediterranean Archaeology 11, (1998 [1999]), pp. 39-69. Caesarea ad Libanum: third-century coins read COL. CESARIA LIBANI ITVR.: G. F. Hill, A Catalogue of the Greek Coins in the British Museum. Catalogue of the Greek Coins of Phoenicia, London, 1910, p. 110.
	P. 279 Abila coin of Alexander and Seleucus: W. Leschhorn, ‘Mythos und Stadtgrndung im Nahen Osten’, O ELLHNISMOS STHN ANATOLH. International Meeting of History and Archaeology, Delphi, 6-9 November 1986, Athens, 1991, pp. 441-451, at p. 450, pl. 4, 3.
	P. 280 Coin types as monuments: see above, notes to p. 218. For Tyrian coin types see G. F. Hill, above, notes to p. 278. The Pygmalion type on coins of Tyre is discussed by M. Robinson, ‘Phoenician Inscriptions on the Late Roman Bronze Coinage of Tyre. Part 1-A. Coin Depicting Pygmalion’, Spink’s Numismatic Circular 105.7 (September 1997), pp. 234-236; and G. Bijovksi, ‘More about Pygmalion from Tyre’, Quaderni Ticinesi 29 (2000), pp. 319-332. On Philo of Byblus: H. W. Attridge, R. A. Oden, Philo of Byblos: The Phoenician History, Washington, 1981.
	Pp. 281-3 Signs of culture: On semiotics in archaeology, see I. Hodder, Symbols in action, Cambridge, 1992. For semiotics and communication: W. Leeds-Hurwitz, Semiotics and Communication: Signs, Codes, Cultures, Hillsdale, NJ, 1993. Semiotics and communal identity: A. P. Cohen, The Symbolic Construction of Community, London, 1985.
P. 281 For the symbolism of Uranius Antoninus, see D. S. Potter, Prophecy and History in the Crisis of the Roman Empire. A Historical Commentary on the Thirteenth Sibylline Oracle, Oxford, 1990, pp. 48-9, 325-6. For a more sceptical view: K. Butcher, ‘Imagined Emperors: Personalities and Political Failure in the 3rd Century’, Journal of Roman Archaeology 9 (1996), pp. 515-27.
P. 282 The Temple of Bel: H. Seyrig, R. Amy, E. Will, Le temple de Bel à Palmyre, Paris, 2 vols, 1968-1975; for a summary of its construction see T. Kaizer, The Religious Life of Palmyra, Stuttgart, 2002, pp. 67-69. Its Hellenized veneer: W. Ball, Rome in the East, pp. 336-7. 
Pp. 283-9 Languages: A. H. M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire, pp. 991-997; R. MacMullen, ‘Provincial Languages in the Roman Empire’, in R. MacMullen, Changes in the Roman Empire, Princeton, 1990, pp. 32-40; F. G. B. Millar, ‘Il ruolo delle lingue semitiche nel vicino oriente tardo-romano (V-VI secolo)’, Mediterraneo Antico 1 (1998), pp. 71-94; M. Sartre, D’Alexandre à Zénobie, pp. 853-4. A colloquium entitled Die Sprachen im rmischen Reich der Kaiserzeit. Kolloquium vom 8. bis. 10. April 1974, Cologne-Bonn 1980, has some articles relevant to the region.
P. 284 Bilingualism: see J.-B. Yon, Les notables de Palmyre, Beirut, 2002, pp. 23-36. Personal names: J.-P. Rey-Coquais, ‘Onomastique et histoire de la Syrie gréco-romaine’, in D. M. Pippidi (ed.), Actes du VIIe congrès international d’épigraphie grecque et latine, Paris-Bucharest, 1979, pp. 171-183; A. Negev, Personal Names in the Nabataean Realm. Qedem 32 (1991). M. Sartre, ‘Nom, langue et identité culturelle en Syrie aux époques hellénistique et romaine’, in J.-B. Humbert, A. Desreumaux, Khirbet es-Samra I, Turnhout, 1998, pp. 555-62. On the use of Semitic and Greek names, see D. Kennedy, ‘Greek, Roman and Native Cultures in the Roman Near East’, in J. Humphrey (ed.), The Roman and Byzantine Near East II, Portsmouth, Rhode Island, 1999, pp. 76-106. On papyrus documents, see notes to pp. 142-5, above.
P. 285 Aramaic under the Achaemenids: it is traditionally considered to have been the lingua franca, but see also D. Graf, ‘Aramaic on the Periphery of the Achaemenid Realm’, Archologische Mitteilungen aus Iran und Turan 32 (2000), pp. 75-92. For a survey of Aramaic, see S. Brock, ‘Three Thousand Years of Aramaic Literature’, Aram 1 (1989), pp. 11-23.
Pp. 285-7 On Syriac, see especially the work of S. Brock, Syriac Perspectives on Late Antiquity, London, 1984; From Ephrem to Romanos: Interactions between Syriac and Greek in Late Antiquity, Aldershot, 1999; J. B. Segal, Edessa. ‘The Blessed City’, Oxford, 1970; F. Millar, ‘Ethnic Identity in the Roman Near East, 325-450: Language, Religion, and Culture’, Mediterranean Archaeology 11 (1999-2000), pp. 159-176. The earliest known writer in Syriac to come from west of the Euphrates appears to be Balaeus, a fifth-century poet: see Millar, p. 163, n. 20. But Syriac inscriptions of the early imperial period are known from Birecik and Apamea (Zeugma) on the eastern bank of the Euphrates, and it would not be too astonishing if they should eventually turn up on the western bank as well. On Bardaisan: H. J. W. Drijvers, Bardaisan of Edessa, Assen, 1966; J. Teixidor, Bardesane d’Édesse. La première philosophie syriaque, Paris, 1992.
P. 287-8 Phoenician: F. Millar, ‘The Phoenician Cities: a case-study of Hellenisation’, Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society 219 (1983), pp. 55-71; F. Briquel-Chatonnet, ‘Les derniers témoignages sur la langue phénicienne en Orient’, Rivista di Studi Fenici 19 (1991), pp. 3-21. Hebrew: E. Schrer, A History of the Jewish People, vol. II, Edinburgh, 1979, pp. 19-23. Arabic: J. A. Bellamy, ‘A New Reading of the Namarah Inscription’ (above, notes to pp. 64-6); and, by the same author, ‘Arabic Verses from the First/Second Century: The Inscription of ‘En ‘Avdat’, Journal of Semitic Studies 35 (1990), pp. 73-9; C. Robin, ‘Les plus anciens monuments de la langue arabe’, in C. Robin (ed.), L’Arabie antique de Karaib’il à Mahomet. Revue du monde musulman et de la Méditerranée 61 (1991), pp. 113-16. Note a dated inscription (AD 267) from Hegra, south of our region: J. F. Healey, G. Rex Smith, ‘Jaussen-Savignac 17. The Earliest Dated Arabic Document (AD 267)’, Al-Atlal 12 (1989), pp. 77-84. It is likely that more evidence for Arabic in Syria and the Near East will emerge in future. Safaitic: There is a large literature. See especially M. C. A. Macdonald, ‘Nomads and the Hawran in the late Hellenistic and Roman periods: a reassessment of the epigraphic evidence’, Syria 70 (1993), pp. 303-403; also H. Zeinaddin, ‘Safaitische Inschriften aus dem Gabal al-‘Arab’, Damaszener Mitteilungen 12 (2000), pp. 265-89.
Pp. 289-307 Architecture: J. B. Ward-Perkins, Roman Imperial Architecture, London, 1981, has a chapter on the region; see also W. MacDonald, The Architecture of the Roman Empire, New York, 1986; and much of W. Ball, Rome in the East, is devoted to architecture. Other essays examining local traditions and outside influences: A. Schmidt-Colinet, ‘Aspects of “Hellenism” in Nabataean and Palmyrene Funerary Architecture’, in O ELLHNISMOS STHN ANATOLH. International Meeting of History and Archaeology, Delphi, 6-9 November 1986, Athens, 1991, pp. 131-44; and, by the same author, ‘East and West in Palmyrene Pattern Books’, Les Annales archéologiques arabes syriennes 42 (1996), pp. 417-23; K. S. Freyberger, ‘Das kaiserzeitliche Damaskus: Schauplatz lokaler Tradition und auswrtiger Einflsse’, Damaszener Mitteilungen 11 (1999), pp. 123-38.
	Pp. 289-95 Architectural style: see the essays by J. Dentzer-Feydy, ‘Le décor architectural en Syrie aux époques hellénistique et romaine’, in J.-M. Dentzer, W. Orthmann (eds.), Archéologie et histoire de la Syrie, II, Saarbrcken, 1989, pp. 457-476; ‘Le décor architectural en Transjordanie de la periode hellnistique à la création de la province d’Arabie en 106’, Studies in the History and Archaeology of Jordan 4 (1992), pp. 227-32. For Sia, see H. C. Butler, Publications of the Princeton University Archaeological Expeditions II.A.6, pp. 365-402 (see also notes to pp. 359-60, below). Fakra: D. Krencker, W. Zschietzschmann, Rmische Tempel in Syrien, Berlin-Leipzig, 1938, vol. 1, pp. 40-55; J.-P. Rey-Coquais, ‘Qalaat Fakra: un monument du culte impérial dans la montagne libanaise’, Topoi 9 (1999), pp. 632-8, arguing for a sanctuary of the imperial cult there. For the tower, see P. Collart, ‘La tour de Qalaat Fakra’, Syria 50 (1973), pp. 137-61. Yammoune: the lintel was photographed by the author in 1995; I do not know if it is still visible. For the Q. Longinus Nicon inscription: C. Ghadban, ‘Trois nouvelles inscriptions latines de Beyrouth’, Bulletin d’Archéologie et d’Architecture Libanaises 2 (1997), pp. 206-235.
	Pp. 291 Palmyrene architectural style: A. Schmidt-Colinet, Palmyra. Kulturbegegnung im Grenzbereich, Mainz, 1995; C. Saliou, ‘Du portique à la rue à portiques. Les rues à colonnades de Palmyre dans le cadre de l’urbanisme romain imperial: originalité et conformisme’, Les Annales archéologiques arabes syriennes 42 (1996), pp. 319-27; and, in the same volume, A. Invernizzi, ‘Les chapiteaux du temple de Bel de Palmyre et les chapiteaux à éléments rapportés dans l’Asie hellénistique’, pp. 355-61; M. Gawlikowski, ‘Du hamana au naos: le temple palmyrénien hellénisé’, Topoi 7 (1997), pp. 837-49; A. Schmidt-Colinet, ‘Aspects of “Romanization”: The Tomb Architecture at Palmyra and its Decoration’, in S. E. Alcock (ed.), The Early Roman Empire in the East, Oxford, 1997, pp. 157-77.
	Pp. 291-2 Architectural style in the Hauran: J. Dentzer-Feydy, ‘Décor architectural et développement du Hauran de Ier s. av. J.-C. au VIIe s. ap. J.-C.’, in Hauran I.2, Paris, 1986, pp. 261-309; K. S. Freyberger, Die frhkaiserzeitlichen Heiligtmer der Karawanenstationen im hellenisierten Osten, Mainz, 1998.
	Pp. 292-3 For the influence of Ptolemaic architecture and the architecture of Nabataea, see J. McKenzie, The Architecture of Petra, Oxford, 1990.
	P. 294 Roman and other influences at Heliopolis: H. Seyrig, ‘Questions héliopolitaines’, Syria 31 (1954), pp. 80-98; Y. Hajjar, La triade d’Héliopolis-Baalbek, Leiden, 3 vols., 1977-1985; M. Wheeler, ‘Size and Baalbek’, in F. Ragette, Baalbek, London, 1980, pp. 7-11. Influence of patterns in other media: A. Schmidt-Colinet, ‘East and West in Palmyrene Pattern Books’ (above, notes to pp. 289-307). Preference for ashlar masonry: C. Mango, Byzantine Architecture, Milan, 1979, pp. 79-80.
Pp. 294-5. Architectural decoration in the late Roman period: C. Strube, ‘Die Formgebung der Apsisdekoration in Qalbloze und Qalat Siman’, Jahrbuch fr Antike und Christentum 20 (1977), pp. 181-91; and, by the same author, ‘Baudekoration in den Kirchen des nordsyrischen Kalksteinmassivs’, Archologischer Anzeiger (1978), pp. 577-601; A. Naccache, J.-P. Sodini, ‘Le décor architectural en Syrie byzantine’, in J.-M. Dentzer, W. Orthmann (eds.), Archéologie et histoire de la Syrie, II, Saarbrcken, 1989, pp. 477-90; A. Naccache, Le décor des églises de villages d’Antiochène du IVe au VIIe siècle, 2 vols., Paris, 1992.
Pp. 295-302 For burials and tombs in antiquity in general: J. M. C. Toynbee, Death and Burial in the Roman World, London, 1971; I. Morris, Death-ritual and Social Structure in Classical Antiquity, Cambridge, 1992. Excellent overviews for the region are provided by M. Gawlikowski, ‘La notion de tombeau en Syrie romaine’, Berytus 21 (1972), pp. 5-15; and A. Sartre, ‘Architecture funéraire de la Syrie’, in J.-M. Dentzer, W. Orthmann (eds.), Archéologie et histoire de la Syrie, II, Saarbrcken, 1989, pp. 423-446. For a detailed and systematic study of the Hauran, which draws on comparisons with other parts of the Near East, see A. Sartre-Fauriat, Des tombeaux et des morts. Monuments funéraires, société et culture en Syrie du sud du 1er s. av. J.-C. au VIIe s. apr. J.-C., Beirut, 2001. This seems set to become a standard work on the subject of tombs and burials in Syria and the Near East.
P. 296 Emesa necropolis: H. Seyrig, ‘Antiquités de la nécropole d’Emèse’, Syria 29 (1952), pp. 204-250 and 30 (1953), pp. 12-24. See also A. Sartre-Fauriat, Des tombeaux et des morts, vol. 2, p. 42. Sarcophagi: Sartre-Fauriat, vol. 1, pp. 217-40, and vol. 2, p. 76 (on the rarity of single, free-standing sarcophagi in the Hauran).
P. 297 Distribution of loculi and arcosilia: but note that one form of burial did not exist to the exclusion of the other in different regions: Sartre-Fauriat, vol. 2, pp. 91-2. Ossuaries: Sartre-Fauriat, vol. 2., pp. 92-4; P. Figueras, Decorated Jewish Ossuaries, Leiden, 1983; L. Y. Rahmani, A Catalogue of Jewish Ossuaries in the Collection of the State of Israel, Jerusalem, 1994. 
Pp. 298-9 Kidron valley: N. Avigad, Ancient Monuments in the Kidron Valley, Jerusalem, 1954. Seats at entrances to hypogea: M. Griesheimer, ‘Sociabilité et rites funéraires. Les porches à banquettes des maisons et des tombeaux du Massif Calcaire’, in Castel et al. (below, notes to pp. 302-7), pp. 297-304. On Rimet al-Lohf see the works of A. Sartre-Fauriat, above, notes to pp. 295-302. Inscriptions attest to the existence of ‘dovecots’ or, more poetically, towers ‘for swift-winged pigeons’: Sartre-Fauriat, vol. 2, p. 70.
Pp. 299-301 Funerary architecture of Palmyra: see in particular the studies by M. Gawlikowski, ‘Classement, chronologie et évolution de la tour funéraire à Palmyre’, Études et Travaux 3 (1966), pp. 168-181; Monuments funéraires de Palmyre, Warsaw, 1970; and by A. Schmidt-Colinet, ‘L’architecture funéraire de Palmyre’, in J.-M. Dentzer, W. Orthmann (eds.), Archéologie et histoire de la Syrie, II, Saarbrcken, 1989, pp. 447-456; K. Parlasca, ‘Beobachtungen zur palmyrenischer Grabarchitektur’, Damaszener Mitteilungen 4 (1989), pp. 181-90; E. Will, ‘La maison d’éternité et les conceptions funéraires des Palmyréniens’, in Mélanges Pierre Lévque, Besanon, 1990, pp. 433-40. Tower-tombs: E. Will, ‘La tour funéraire de Palmyre’, Syria 26 (1949), pp. 87-116. For tower-tombs elsewhere see E. Will, ‘La tour funéraire de la Syrie et les monuments apparentés’, Syria 26 (1949), pp. 258-313; R. Gogrfe, ‘Die Grabtrme von Sirrin (Osrone)’, Damaszener Mitteilungen 8 (1995), pp. 165-201. Temple-tomb no. 36: K. al-Asa‘d, A. Schmidt-Colinet, ‘Das Tempelgrab Nr. 36 in der Westnekropole von Palmyra. Ein Vorbericht’, Damaszener Mitteilungen 2 (1985), pp. 17-35. The shift from Tower-tombs to Temple-Tombs appears to have been driven by changing fashions among the elites: see J.-B. Yon, Les notables de Palmyre, Beirut, 2002, pp. 197-232.
Pp. 301-2 The textiles from Zenobia: R. Fister, Textiles de Halabiyeh (Zenobia), Paris, 1951. Gold sheets at Heliopolis: M. van Ess, Heliopolis Baalbek, 1898-1998. Rediscovery and Ruins, Berlin, 1998. For gold face masks as a ‘Phoenician’ feature: J. Curtis, ‘Gold Face-Masks in the Ancient Near East’, in S. Campbell, A. Green (eds.), The Archaeology of Death in the Ancient Near East, Oxford, 1995, pp. 226-31. Lead sarcophagi: M. Avi-Yonah, ‘Lead Coffins from Palestine’, Quarterly of the Department of Antiquities of Palestine 4 (1935), pp. 87-99; A.-M. Bertin, ‘Les sarcophages en plomb syriens au Musée du Louvre’, Revue archéologique (1974), pp. 43-82. For more recent studies which deal with questions of production and workshops, see L. Y. Rahmani, ‘Roman Lead Coffins in the Israel Museum’, Israel Museum Journal 7 (1988), pp. 47-55; D. White, ‘The Eschatological Connection between Lead and Ropes as Reflected in a Roman Imperial Period Coffin in Philadelphia’, Israel Exploration Journal 49 (1999), pp. 66-91. For the Tyre epitaphs, see the works by J.-P. Rey-Coquais, Inscriptions grecques et latines découvertes dans les fouilles de Tyr (1963-1974). Vol. 1. Inscriptions de la Nécropole. Bulletin du Musée de Beyrouth 29 (1977); and ‘Tyr, fouilles récentes, ville, hippodrome et nécropole: l’apport des inscriptions’, Revue archéologique 1979, pp. 166-168. In general, however, occupations are rare in the corpus of funerary inscriptions from the region as a whole, except for soldiers. See comments by A. Sartre-Fauriat, Des tombeaux et des morts, vol. 2, pp. 162-4.
Pp. 302-7 Domestic architecture: see J.-Ch. Balty, ‘La maison urbaine en Syrie’, in J.-M. Dentzer, W. Orthmann (eds.), Archéologie et histoire de la Syrie, II, Saarbrcken, 1989, pp. 407-422; and the important collection of essays in C. Castel, M. al-Maqdissi, F. Villeneuve (eds.), Les maisons dans la Syrie antique du IIIe millénaire aux débuts de l’Islam. Pratiques et représentations de l’espace domestique. Actes du Colloque International, Damas 27-30 juin 1992, Beirut, 1997. For the south, see especially Y. Hirschfeld, The Palestinian Dwelling in the Roman-Byzantine Period, Jerusalem, 1995.
P. 303 Edifice au triclinos: J.-Ch. Balty, ‘Palais et maisons d’Apamée’, in Castel et al. (above, notes to pp. 302-7), pp. 283-95; see also C. Foss (above, notes to pp. 261-9), pp. 217-18. For Julianus the Architect of Ascalon, see notes to pp. 137-8, above.
Pp. 303-4 Dura Europus: A. Perkins, The Art of Dura-Europos, Oxford, 1973, pp. 21-3; and the works of A. Allara, ‘Les maisons de Doura-Europos. Questions de typologie’, Syria 63 (1986), pp. 39-60; ‘Domestic architecture at Dura-Europus’, Mesopotamia 22 (1987), pp. 67-76. Petra: R. Stucky, ‘The Nabataean House and the Urbanistic System of the Habitation Quarters in Petra’, Studies in the History and Archaeology of Jordan 5, Amman, 1995, pp. 193-198.
Pp. 304-5 Palmyra: E. Frézouls, ‘A propos de l’architecture domestique à Palmyre’, Ktéma 1 (1976), pp. 29-52; M. Gawlikowski, ‘L’habitat à Palmyre de l’antiquité au moyen-age’, in Castel et al. (above, notes to pp. 302-7), pp. 161-6. Apamea: J. Balty (ed.), Actes du IIIe Colloque Apamée de Syrie. Bilan des recherches archéologiques 1973-1979. Aspects de l’architecture domestique d’Apamée, Brussels, 1984; and C. Foss, above, notes to pp. 261-9.
Pp. 305-7 Dead Cities: see notes to pp. 145-53, especially the work of G. Tate, to which add J.-P. Sodini, G. Tate, ‘Maisons d’époque romaine et byzantine (IIe-VIe siècle) du Massif Calcaire de Syrie du Nord. Etude typologique’, in J. Balty (ed.), Apamée de Syrie. Bilan des recherches archéologiques 1973-1979, Brussels, 1984, pp. 377-429. Hauran: F. Villeneuve, ‘L’économie rurale et la vie des campagnes dans le Hauran antique’(above, notes to pp. 157-61); and, by the same author, ‘Les salles à alcve dans les maisons d’époque romaine et byzantine en Syrie’, in Castel et al. (above, notes to pp. 302-7), pp. 269-81.
Pp. 307-27 Art: In general: J. Elsner, Imperial Rome and Christian Triumph. The Art of the Roman Empire, AD 100-450, Oxford, 1998. On the Near East: D. Schlumberger, ‘Descendants non-Méditerranéens de l’art Grec’, Syria 37 (1960), pp. 131-66, 253-318; E. Will, ‘La Syrie romaine entre l’Occident gréco-romain et l’Orient parthe’, Actes du VIIIe Congrès international d’archéologie classique, Paris, 1965, pp. 511-525; H. Klengel, The Art of Ancient Syria, South Brunswick-New York, 1972; K. Parlasca, ‘La sculpture grecque et la sculpture d’époque romaine impériale en Syrie’ in J.-M. Dentzer, W. Orthmann (eds.), Archéologie et histoire de la Syrie, II, Saarbrcken, 1989, pp. 537-56; T. Weber, ‘A Survey of Roman Scultpure in the Decapolis: Preliminary Report’, Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan 34 (1990), pp. 351-5.
	P. 308 Kartaba sculpture: C. Doumet-Serhal, A.-M. Maila-Afeiche, F. el-Dahdah, A. Rabate, Stones and Creed. 100 Artefacts from Lebanon’s Antiquity, Beirut, 1998, p. 188. Bronze feet from the agora at Palmyra: M. A. R. Colledge, The Art of Palmyra, London, 1976, p. 90. Agrippa’s bronzes: J.-P. Rey-Coquais, ‘inscriptions grecques’ (above, notes to p. 226). 
	P. 309 Imported marbles: M. Fisher, ‘Figured Capitals in Roman Palestine: Marble Imports and Local Stone. Some Aspects of “Imperial” and “Provincial” Art’, Palestine Exploration Quarterly 121 (1989), pp. 112-32. Byblus nymphaeum: J. Lauffray, ‘Une fouille au pied de l’acropole de Byblos’, Bulletin du Musée de Beyrouth 4 (1940), pp. 7-36. Imports to Caesarea Maritima and Scythopolis: E. A. Friedland, ‘Graeco-Roman sculpture in the Levant: the marbles from the Sanctuary of Pan at Caesarea Philippi (Banias)’, in J. Humphrey (ed.), The Roman and Byzantine Near East, volume 2, Portsmouth, 1999, pp. 7-22. Allat temple at Palmyra: see the discussions by M. Gawlikowski, ‘Le Temple d’Allat à Palmyre’, Revue archéologique (1977), pp. 253-74; ‘Réflexions sur la chronologie du sanctuaire d’Allat à Palmyre’, Damaszener Mitteilungen 1 (1983), pp. 59-67; ‘Le premier temple d’Allat’, in Resurrecting the Past. A Joint Tribute to Adnan Bounni, Istanbul, 1990, pp. 101-9. 
	P. 310 Zeugma sculptures: K. Parlasca, Syrische Grabreliefs hellenistischer und rmischer Zeit – Fundgruppen und Probleme, Mainz, 1982; various sculptures are illustrated in N. Bagelen, R. Erge, Belkis/Zeugma. A Last Look at History, Istanbul, 2000, pp. 16-17. For the basket and eagle, see E. Will, ‘Les problèmes iconographiques de la Syrie romaine’, in EIDWLOPOIIA, Actes du colloque sur les problèmes de l’image dans le monde méditerranéen classique, Lourmarin, 1982,  Rome, 1985, pp. 41-8, pl. 2, fig. 3. Mount Nemrut: D. H. Sanders, Nemrut Dag: The Hierothesion of Antiochus I of Commagene, 2 vols., Winona Lake, 1996. 
Pp. 310-11 Hauran sculptures: A. Al Ush, A. Joundi, B. Zouhdi, Catalogue du Musée National de Damas, Damascus, 1969; M. Dunand, Le Musée de Soueda, Paris, 1934; G. Bolelli, ‘La sculpture au musée de Suweida’, in J.-M. Dentzer, J. Dentzer-Feydy, Le djebel al-Arab. Histoire et patrimoine au Musée de Suweida, Paris, 1991, pp. 63-80; K. Lembke, ‘Rmische Schreiberstatuen aus dem Hauran und ihr gyptisierendes Umfeld’, Damaszener Mitteilungen 11 (1999), pp. 255-64; A. Sartre-Fauriat, Des tombeaux et des morts, Beirut, 2001.
	Pp. 311-13 Palmyrene sculpture: H. Ingholt, Studier over palmyrensk skulptur, Copenhagen, 1928; E. Will, ‘Le relief de la tour de Kithot et le banquet funéraire à Palmyre’, Syria 28 (1951), pp. 70-100; M. Morehart, ‘Early sculpture at Palmyra’, Berytus 12 (1956-58), pp. 53-83; M. A. R. Colledge, The Art of Palmyra, London, 1976; M. Pietrzykowski, ‘The Origins of the Frontal Convention in the Arts of the Near East’, Berytus 33 (1985), pp. 55-9; K. Tanabe, Sculptures of Palmyra I, Tokyo, 1987; A. Sadurska, A. Bounni, Les sculptures funéraires de Palmyre, Rome, 1994; K. Parlasca, ‘Some Problems of Palmyrene Plastic Art’, Aram 7 (1995), pp. 59-71. Parthian sculpture: M. A. R. Colledge, Parthian Art, London, 1977. 
P. 313 Dura Europus: A. Perkins, The Art of Dura-Europos, Oxford, 1973; S. B. Downey, The Herakles Sculptures. Excavations at Dura-Europos, Final Report III. I. I, New Haven, 1969; S. B. Downey, ‘Cult reliefs at Dura-Europos: Problems of Interpretation and Placement’, Damaszener Mitteilungen 10 (1998), pp. 201-10. Antioch collection of sculpture: D. M. Brinkerhoff, A Collection of Sculpture in Classical and Early Christian Antioch, New York, 1970.
	Pp. 313-25 Mosaics: two fundamental works by are by J. Balty: Mosaques antiques de Syrie, Brussels, 1977; and Mosaques antiques du Proche-Orient. Chronologie, iconographie, interprétation, Besanon, 1995. An excellent general study is K. M. D. Dunbabin’s Mosaics of the Greek and Roman World, Cambridge, 1999. For various regions and sites, see D. Levi, Antioch Mosaic Pavements, 2 vols., Princeton, 1947; S. Campbell, The Mosaics of Antioch, Toronto, 1988; N. Bagelen, R. Erge, Belkis/Zeugma, Istanbul, 2000; M. Chéhab, Mosaques du Liban, 2 vols., Bulletin du Musée de Beyrouth 14-15 (1957-9); H. Stern, Les mosaques des maisons d’Achille et de Cassiopée à Palmyre, Paris, 1977; J. Balty, Mosaques d’Apamée, Brussels, 1985; M. Piccirillo, The Mosaics of Jordan, Amman, 1993; J. Balty, ‘Les mosaques de Shahba-Philippopolis. Chronologie, Ateliers, Commanditaires’, Les Annales archéologiques arabes syriennes 41 (1997), pp. 49-61.
P. 316 Cassiopeia in a Syrian context: J. Balty, Mosaques antiques de Syrie, Brussels, 1977; and, for eastern readings of Greek myths in mosaics, by the same author: ‘Composantes Classiques et orientales dans les mosaques de Palmyre’, Les Annales archéologiques arabes syriennes 42 (1996), pp. 407-16.
P. 318 Mosaic of the Evil Eye: D. Levi, ‘The Evile Eye and the Lucky Hunchback’, in R. Stillwell (ed.), Antioch-on-the-Orontes III, Princeton, 1941, pp. 220-32. House of the Buffet Supper: D. Levi, Antioch Mosaic Pavements, pp. 127-36. 
P. 319 On ekphrasis: M. Krieger, Ekphrasis: The Illusion of the Natural Sign, Baltimore, 1992; J. Hefferman, Museum of Words, Chicago, 1992. Mariamme mosaic: A. R. Zaqzuq, M. Duchesne-Guillemin, ‘La mosaque de Miriamin’, Les Annales archéologiques arabes syriennes 20 (1970), pp. 93-125. Metiochos and Parthenope: S, Campbell, R. Erge, E. Csapo, ‘New Mosaics’, in D. Kennedy (ed.), The Twin Towns of Zeugma on the Euphrates. Rescue Work and Historical Studies, Portsmouth, Rhode Island, 1998, pp. 109-28.
Pp. 319-21 Philippopolis mosaic: E. Will, ‘Une nouvelle mosaque de Chahba-Philippopolis’, Les Annales archéologiques arabes syriennes 3 (1953), pp. 27-48; for a recent interpretation of this pavement, see M.-H. Quet, ‘La mosaque dite d’Aion de Shahba-Philippopolis, Philippe l’Arabe et la conception hellène de l’ordre du monde, en Arabie, à l’aube du christianisme’, Cahiers Glotz 10 (1999), pp. 269-30; and, by the same author, ‘Le Triptolème de la mosaque dite d’Aion et l’affirmation identitaire hellène à Shahba-Philippopolis’, Syria 77 (2000), pp. 181-200.
P. 252. Past, present and future mosaic: D. Levi, ‘Aion’, Hesperia 13 (1944), pp. 269-314. Neoplatonist mosaics: J. Balty, J.-Ch. Balty, ‘Un programme philosophique sous la cathédrale d’Apamée: l’ensemble néo-platonicien de l’empereur Julien’, in Texte et image. Actes de colloque, Paris, 1984, pp. 167-76. Heliopolis mosaics: M. Chéhab (above, notes to pp. 313-25), pp. 29-50.
Pp. 323-4 Sasanian motifs: K. M. D. Dunbabin (above, notes to pp. 313-25), p. 178. Influences in other media: J. Balty, ‘Mosaque et textiles en Syrie du nord’, Les Annales archéologiques arabes syriennes 43 (1999), pp. 185-92; Medaba mosaic: see above, notes to p. 276. Eusebius’ Onomasticon is another likely influence. Huarte mosaic: M. T. and P. Canivet, ‘La mosaque d’Adam dans l’église syrienne de Huarte (Ve s.)’, Cahiers Archéologiques 24 (1975), pp. 49-69. For churches in general: P. Donceel-Vote, Les pavements des églises byzantines de Syrie et du Liban. Décor, archéologie et liturgie, Louvain-La-Neuve, 1988. Synagogues: Dunbabin (above, notes to pp. 313-25). Hammath Tiberias mosaics: M. Dothan, Hammath Tiberias. Early Synagogues and the Hellenistic and Roman Remains, Jerusalem, 1983.
Pp. 324-5 Edessa mosaics: see the articles by J. Leroy, ‘Mosaques funéraires d’Edesse’, Syria 34 (1957), pp. 306-42; ‘Nouvelle découvertes archéologiques relatives à Edesse’, Syria 38 (1961), pp. 159-69; see also S. K. Ross, Roman Edessa. Politics and Culture on the Eastern Fringes of the Roman Empire, 114-242 CE, London, 2001. Sarrn mosaics: J. Balty, La mosaque de Sarrn (Osrhoène). Inventaire des mosaques de Syrie I, Paris, 1990.
Pp. 325-7 Painting: An essay by J. Balty, ‘La peinture en Syrie’, in J.-M. Dentzer, W. Orthmann (eds.), Archéologie et histoire de la Syrie, II, Saarbrcken, 1989, pp. 525-536 provides an overview. For sites, particularly Dura, see C. H. Kraeling, The Excavations at Dura-Europos 8.1. The Synagogue, New Haven, 1956, and 8.2. The Christian Building at Dura-Europos, New Haven, 1967; M. I. Rostovtzeff, Dura and its Art, Oxford, 1938; A. Perkins, The Art of Dura-Europos, Oxford, 1973; A. J. Wharton, Refiguring the Post Classical City. Dura Europos, Jerash, Jerusalem and Ravenna, Cambridge, 1995. For Zeugma, see N. Bagelen, R. Erge, Belkis/Zeugma. A Last Look at History, Istanbul, 2000; and for Petra, M. Lindner, Petra. Neue Ausgrabungen und Entdeckungen, Munich-Bad Windsheim, 1986. For Huarte: M. Gawlikowski, ‘Un nouveau Mithraeum récemment découvert à Huarte près d’Apamée’, Comptes rendus de l’Acadmie des inscriptions et des belles-lettres 2000, pp. 161-71; ‘Hawarti. Preliminary Report’, Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean 10 (1999), pp. 197-204; ‘Hawarte. Third Interim Report on the Work done in the Mithraeum’, Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean 12 (2001), pp. 309-14. Palmyra: C. H. Kraeling, ‘Color Photographs of the Paintings in the Tomb of the Three Brothers at Palmyra, Les Annales archéologiques arabes syriennes 11-12 (1961-62), pp. 13-18. Masyaf: F. Chapouthier, ‘Les peintures murales d’un hypogée funéraire près de Massyaf’, Syria 31 (1954), pp. 172-211. For other paintings from the region, not discussed here, see J. P. Peters, H. Thiersch, Painted Tombs in the Necropolis of Marissa, London, 1905; A. Barbet, C. Vibert-Guigue, Les peintures des nécropoles romaines d’Abila et du nord de la Jordanie, Beirut, 2 vols., 1988-1994.
P. 327 Shai al-Kaum: E. A. Knauf, ‘Dushara and Shai‘ al-Qaum’, Aram 2 (1990), pp. 175-83; J. F. Healey, The Religion of the Nabataeans. A Conspectus, Leiden, 2001, pp. 143-7. Perhaps relevant in this context is the remark put into the mouth of Pescennius Niger by the writer of the Historia Augusta about ‘Saracens’ drinking water rather than wine: 7.8. Epispasm: E. Schrer, A History of the Jewish People, vol I, Edinburgh, 1973, pp. 148-9, note 28.
P. 328 Loincloths in Hauran sculpture: G. Bolelli (above, notes to pp. 310-11), p. 65.
P. 329 Cultural links between Palmyra and Mesopotamia: H. J. W. Drijvers, ‘Hatra, Palmyra und Edessa’, Aufstieg und Niedergang der rmischen Welt 2.8 (1977), pp. 799-906; J.-B. Yon, below, notes to p. 331, pp. 134-5.
Pp. 331 Priestly dress: R. A. Stucky, ‘Prêtres syriens I: Palmyre’, Syria 50 (1973), pp. 163-180; ‘II: Hiérapolis’, Syria 53 (1976), pp. 127-140. R. Krumeich, ‘Darstellung syrischer Priester an den kaiserzeitlichen Tempeln von Niha und Chehim im Libanon’, Damaszener Mitteilungen 10 (1998), pp. 171-200; K. Chéhadeh, M. Griesheimer, ‘Les reliefs funéraires du tombeau du prtre Rapsnes’, Syria 75 (1999), pp. 171-92; J.-B. Yon, Les notables de Palmyre, Beirut, 2002, pp. 132-4. For costume as a form of resistance, see J.-Ch. Balty, ‘Palmyre entre orient et occident: Acculturation et résistances’, Les Annales archéologiques arabes syriennes 42 (1996), pp. 437-41.
	P. 333 Senators and equestrians: G. Bowersock, ‘Roman Senators from the Near East: Syria, Judaea, Arabia, Mesopotamia’ in S. Panciera (ed.), Epigrafia e ordine senatorio II, Tituli 5 (1982), pp. 651-668; H. Devijer, ‘Equestrian officers from the East’ P. Freeman, D. Kennedy, The Defence of the Roman and Byzantine East, Oxford, 1986, vol. 1, pp. 109-225. South Shields: M. A. R. Colledge, The Art of Palmyra, London, 1976, pp. 231-3.

Chapter 9: The Pious World

Pp. 335-71 For general works on pagan religion: R. MacMullen, Paganism in the Roman Empire, New Haven, 1981; M. Beard, J. North (eds), Pagan Priests. Religion and Power in the Ancient World, London, 1990; M. Beard, J. A. North, S. Price, Religions of Rome, Cambridge, 1998.
For Syrian deities and religion, see in particular the works of H. Seyrig, for example, ‘Hiérarchie des divinités de Palmyre’, Syria 13 (1932), pp. 190-5; ‘Le culte de Bl et de Baalshamin’, Syria 14 (1933), pp. 238-52; ‘Divinités de Sidon’, Syria 36 (1959) pp. 48-56; ‘Les grands dieux de Tyr à l’époque grecque et romaine’, Syria 40 (1963), pp. 19-28. Other important works include D. Sourdel, Les cultes du Hauran à l’époque romaine, Paris, 1952; H. J. W. Drijvers, Cults and Beliefs at Edessa, Leiden, 1970; J. T. Milik, Dedicaces faites par des dieux (Palmyra, Hatra, Tyr) et des thiases sémitiques à l’époque romaine, Paris, 1972; J. Teixidor, The Pagan God: Popular Religion in the Ancient Near East, Princeton, 1977; and, by the same author, J. Teixidor, ‘Sur quelques aspects de la vie religieuse dans la Syrie à l’époque hellénistique et romaine’, in Dentzer and Orthmann (eds.), Archéologie et histoire de la Syrie, II, pp. 81-95; L. Dirven, The Palmyrenes of Dura-Europos. A Study of Religious Interaction in Roman Syria, Leiden, 1999. Important works on cults and the design of temples by Ernest Will are gathered together in his De l’Euphrate au Rhin. Aspects de l’hellénisation et de la romanisation du Proche-Orient, Beirut, 1995. Volume 18.4 of Aufstieg und Niedergang der rmischen Welt has various essays about religions in the Near East.
	Pp. 335-6 Lucian’s reverence for Atargatis: J. Elsner, ‘The Origins of the Icon: Pilgrimage, Religion and Visual Culture in the Roman East as ‘Resistance’ to the Centre’, in S. E. Alcock (ed.), The Early Roman Empire in the East, Oxford, 1997, pp. 178-99. ‘Superstar’ cults and others abroad: R. Turcan, Les cultes orientaux dans le monde romain, Paris, 1989; J. R. Hinnells, Mithraic Studies, Manchester, 1975.
P. 337 Glycon: Lucian, Alexander. Lucian on Syrian and Phoenician cults: Elsner, above, notes to pp. 335-6. Jupiter Dolichenus: M. P. Speidel, The Religion of Iuppiter Dolichenus in the Roman Army, Leiden, 1978; F. Millar, The Roman Near East, pp. 248-9; P.-L. Gatier, ‘Monuments du culte “dolichénien” en Cyrrhestique’, Syria 75 (1998), pp. 161-169. 
Pp. 337-8 On Jupiter Heliopolitanus, see notes to p. 366 below.
P. 339 The Malakbel altar: M. A. R. Colledge, The Art of Palmyra, London, 1976, pp. 231-2.
P. 340 For Nabataean deities, see in particular: G. W. Bowersock, ‘The Cult and Representation of Dusares in Roman Arabia’, in F. Zayadine (ed.), Petra and the Caravan Cities, Amman, 1990, pp. 31-33; E. A. Knauf, ‘Dushara and Shai‘ al-Qaum’, ARAM 2 (1990), pp. 175-183; J. F. Healy, The Religion of the Nabataeans. A Conspectus, Leiden, 2001.
	Pp. 340-1 Solar cults: H. Seyrig, ‘Le culte du Soleil en Syrie à l’époque romaine’, Syria 48 (1971), pp. 337-73; E. Will, ‘Une figure du culte solaire d’Aurelien: Jupiter consul vel consulens’, Syria 36 (1959), pp. 193-201. Mithras and Mithraic temples: There are numerous essays on the subject by E. Will, gathered together in his De l’Euphrate au Rhin, Beirut, 1995. See also L. M. Hopfe, ‘Mithraism in Syria’, Aufstieg und Niedergang der rmischen Welt 18.4; I. Roll, ‘The Mysteries of Mithras in the Roman Orient: The Problem of Origin’, Journal of Mithraic Studies 2 (1977-8), pp. 53-68; M. Sartre, D’Alexandre à Zénobie, pp. 897-9. For recent finds at Doliche: E. Winter, ‘Mithraism and Christianity in Late Antiquity’, in S. Mitchell, G. Greatrex (eds), Ethnicity and Culture in Late Antiquity, London-Swansea, 2000, pp. 173-82. For the Huarte mithraeum, see M. Gawlikowski (above, notes to pp. 325-7). 
P. 342 Triads: scepticism expressed by F. Millar, The Roman Near East, pp. 281-2.
P. 343 Zeus Carmelus Heliopolitanus: F. Millar, The Roman Near East, p. 270.
Pp. 343-4 Elagabal: M. Frey, Untersuchungen zur Religion und zur Religionspolitik des Kaisers Elagabal, Stuttgart, 1989; see also F. Millar, The Roman Near East, pp. 300-9. ‘God-Mountain’: J. Starcky, ‘Stele d’Elahagabal’, Mélanges de l’Université Saint Joseph 49 (1975/6), pp. 501-20. W. Ball, Rome in the East, London, 2000, pp. 37-47, suggests that the temple of Elagabal is in fact the temple of Jupiter Heliopolitanus at Heliopolis, but on civic coins of Emesa the temple is consistently depicted with a façade of six columns, whereas on civic coins of Heliopolis the temple specifically labelled as that of Jupiter Optimus Maximus Heliopolitanus has a façade of ten (which corresponds to the number at the site).
	Pp. 344-5 On the process of syncretism: for the view followed here, see J. Webster, ‘A Negotiated Syncretism: Readings on the Development of Romano-Celtic Religion’ in D. J. Mattingly (ed.), Dialogues in Roman Imperialism, Portsmouth, Rhode Island, pp. 165-84. The Syrian Goddess: M. Avi-Yonah, ‘Syrian Gods at Ptolemais-Accho’, Israel Exploration Journal 9 (1959), pp. 1-12; H. Seyrig, ‘Les dieux de Hiérapolis’, Syria 37 (1961), pp. pp. 233-52; H. Seyrig, ‘Bas-relief des dieux d’Hiérapolis’, Syria 49 (1972), pp. 105-108; R. A. Oden, Studies in Lucian’s De Syria Dea, Harvard Semitic Monographs 15, Cambridge, Mass., 1977; P. Bilde, ‘Atargatis/Dea Syria: Hellenization of Her Cult in the Hellenistic-Roman Period?’, in P. Bilde, T. Engberg, L. Hannestad, J. Zahle (eds), Religion and Religious Practice in the Seleucid Kingdom, Aarhus, 1990, pp. 151-87; F. Millar, The Roman Near East, pp. 242-7. For depictions of the deities on coins of the late Persian – early Hellenistic periods, see L. Mildenberg, ‘A Note on the Coinage of Hierapolis-Bambyce’, in M. Amandry, S. Hurter, D. Bérend (eds.), Travaux de numismatique grecque offerts à Georges Le Rider, London, 1999, pp. 277-284. On the bearded Apollo: H. Seyrig, ‘Sur une idole hiérapolitaine’, Syria 26 (1949), pp. 17-28; also Elsner, above, notes to p. 335-6.
	Pp. 345-6 Cults at Palmyra: there are numerous works by H. Seyrig, for example, ‘Hiérarchie des divinités de Palmyre’, Syria 13 (1932), pp. 190-5; ‘Le culte de Bel et de Baalshamin’, Syria 14 (1933), pp. 238-52; ‘Bl de Palmyre’, Syria 48 (1971), pp. 85-114. Other important works: H. J. W. Drijvers, The Religion of Palmyra, Leiden, 1976; J. Teixidor, The Pantheon of Palmyra, Leiden, 1979; M. Gawlikowski, ‘Les dieux de Palmyre’, Aufstieg und Niedergang der rmischen Welt II.18.4 (1990), pp. 2605-58; and the recent excellent discussion by T. Kaizer, The Religious Life of Palmyra, Stuttgart, 2002.
Pp. 348-9 Keraunophors: L. Jalabert, R. Mouterde, Inscriptions grecques et latines de la Syrie II.2. Antioch, Antiochène, Paris, 1953, no. 1184B. Festival of Adonis at Byblus: E. Will, ‘Le rituel des Adonies’, Syria 52 (1975), pp. 93-105; B. Soyez, Byblos et la fte des Adonies, Leiden, 1977. Hocmaea: J.-P. Rey-Coquais, ‘Des montagnes au désert’ (below, notes to pp. 351-2). Zosimus: 1.58; some have suggested that the location for this event is at Yammoune, on the opposite side of the Lebanon range from Aphaca, where there is also a temple, a spring and pools.
Pp. 349-50 Banquets: H. Seyrig, ‘Les tessères palmyréniennes et le banquet rituel’, Mémorial Lagrange, 1940, pp. 51-8; J. T. Milik, Dedicaces faites par des dieux, Paris, 1972 (but note also the comments of T. Kaizer, The Religious Life of Palmyra, Stuttgart, 2002, p. 258); E. Will, ‘Les salles de banquet de Palmyre et d’autres lieux’, Topoi 7 (1997), pp. 873-887; and D. Tarrier, ‘Banquets rituels en Palmyrène et en Nabatène’, Aram 7 (1995), pp. 165-82. Disputes at Dmeir: P. Roussel, F. De Visscher, ‘Les inscriptions du temple de Dmeir’, Syria 23 (1942-3), pp. 173-200. Iabruda: Jalabert et al. (above, notes to p. 92), no. 2707.
Pp. 351-2 Origins of temple designs: W. Ball, Rome in the East, pp. 317-56. High Places: O. Callot, J. Marcillet-Jaubert, ‘Hauts-lieux de Syrie du nord’, in G. Roux (ed.), Temples et sanctuaires, Paris, 1984, pp. 185-202. Hierapolis and temple estates: M. Sartre, D’Alexandre à Zénobie, pp. 744-5. Baetocaece: H. Seyrig, ‘Arados et Baetocaece’, Syria 28 (1951), pp. 191-206; J.-P. Rey-Coquais, ‘Des montagnes au désert: Baetocécé, la Pagus Augustus de Niha, la Ghouta à l’est de Damas’, in E. Frézouls (ed.), Sociétés urbaines, sociétés rurales dans l’Asie Mineure et la Syrie hellénistiques et romaines, Strasbourg, 1987, pp. 191-216; F. Millar, The Roman Near East, pp. 271-3; D. Feissel, ‘Les privilèges de Baitokaike’, Syria 70 (1993), pp. 13-26.
Pp. 352-63 On Syrian and Near Eastern temples in general: D. Krencker, W. Zschietzschmann, Römische Tempel in Syrien, Berlin, 1938. G. Taylor, The Roman Temples of Lebanon, Beirut, 1971; M. Le Glay, Villes, temples et sanctuaires de l’orient romain, Paris, 1986; J.-M. Dentzer, ‘Le sanctuaire syrien’, J.-M. Dentzer, W. Orthmann (eds.), Archéologie et histoire de la Syrie, II, Saarbrcken, 1989, pp. 297-322; M. Gawlikowski, ‘Les temples dans la Syrie à l’époque hellénistique et romaine’, in Dentzer and Orthmann, pp. 323-46; E. Will, ‘L’espace sacrificiel dans les provinces romaines de Syrie et d’Arabie’, in L’espace sacrificiel dans les civilisations méditerranéennes de l’Antiquité, Publications de la Bibliothèque Salomon Reinach, Lyon, 1991, pp. 259-63; K. S. Freyberger (above, notes to pp. 291-2).
Pp. 353-4 Temples at Dura Europus: P. Leriche, ‘Matériaux pour une réflexion renouvelée sur les sanctuaires de Doura-Europos’, Topoi 7 (1997), pp. 889-913. Private nature of worship: see Wharton, above, notes to pp. 259-61. See also L. Dirven, The Palmyrenes of Dura-Europos. A Study of Religious Interaction in Roman Syria, Leiden, 1999.
P. 354 Sanctuary of Baalshamin at Palmyra: P. Collart, J. Vicari, Le sanctuaire de Baalshamin à Palmyre I-II. Topographie et architecture, Rome, 1969. Inscriptions on the Jebel Sheikh Barakat: W.K. Prentice, Part III of the Publications of an American Archaeological Expedition to Syria in 1899-1900, New York, 1906, nos. 100-104.
Pp. 355-6 Tower altars: see two works by P. Collart, P. Coupel, L’autel monumental de Baalbek, Paris, 1951; Le petit autel de Baalbek, Paris, 1977. For monuments à colonnettes: E. Will, ‘A propos de quelques monuments sacrés de la Syrie et de l’Arabie romaines’, in F. Zayadine (ed.), Petra and the Caravan Cities, Amman, 1990, pp. 197-205; K. S. Freyberger, ‘Zur Funktion der Hamana im Kontext lokaler Heiligtmer in Syrien und Palstina’, Damaszener Mitteilungen 9 (1996), pp. 143-61. See also the comments of J.-M. Dentzer, ‘Edicules d’époque hellenistico-romaine et tradition des pierres cultuelles en Syrie et en Arabie’, in P. Matthiae, M. van Loon, H. Weiss, Resurrecting the Past. A Joint Tribute to Adnan Bounni, Istanbul, 1990, pp. 65-83.
P. 356 Theatron: E. Will, ‘Thétres sacrés de la Syrie et de l’Empire’, Mélanges de l’Université Saint Joseph 37 (1961), pp. 209-19. For Sia: above, notes to pp. 289-95; for Sahr: Butler (above, notes to pp. 289-95), II.A.7, Leiden 1919, pp. 441-6; for Dura: M. I. Rostovtzeff (ed.), The Excavations at Dura-Europos. Preliminary Report of Fifth Season of Work, 1931-1932, New Haven, 1934, pp. 131-200; P. Arnaud, ‘Les salles W9 et W10 du temple d’Azzanathkona à Doura-Europos’, in P. Leriche, M. Gelin (eds), Doura-Europos Études, IV, Beirut, 1997, pp. 117-144. 
Pp. 357-8 For the Petra Great Temple, M. S. Joukowski, Petra Great Temple, Vol. 1. Brown University Excavations, 1993-1997, Providence, Rhode Island, 1998. Temple of Bel at Palmyra: see notes to pp. 361-3 below. Temple of Nebo at Palmyra: A. Bounni, La sanctuaire de Nabu, Damascus, 1982. Thalamos: E. Will, ‘L’adyton dans le temple syrien de l’époque impériale’, Études d’archéologie classique II, Annales de l’Est, University of Nancy, mémoire 22 (1959), pp. 136-45.
P. 359-60 Niha model: E. Will, ‘La maquette de l’adyton du temple A de Niha (Beqa)’, in Le dessin d’architecture dans les sociétés antiques (Actes du colloque de Strasbourg, 1984), Strasbourg, 1985, pp. 277-81. Nabataean temples: N. Glueck, Deities and Dolphins, London, 1966; P. C. Hammond, The Temple of the Winged Lions, Petra, Jordan, 1973-1990, Fountain Hills, 1996. The Baalshamin temple at Sia has now been almost completely obliterated by a modern house: J.-M. Dentzer, F. Braemer, J. Dentzer-Feydy, F. Villeneuve, ‘Six campagnes de fouilles à Si‘: Développement et culture indigène en Syrie méridionale’, Damaszener Mitteilungen 2 (1985), pp. 65-83.
Pp. 360-1 Kalybé: M. Gawlikowski, ‘Les temples dans la Syrie’ (above, notes to pp. 352-63), pp. 333-4. Various monuments in the Hauran have been dubbed a kalybé, but the only certain examples are at Umm ez-Zeitun, Hayyat and Maximinopolis-Shaqqa. On the possible origin of this form, see J.-M. Dentzer, ‘Naiskoi du Hauran et qubbah arabe’, in F. Zayadine (ed.), Petra and the Caravan Cities, Amman, 1990, pp. 207-19. 
Pp. 361-3 Bel Temple at Palmyra: above, notes to p. 282; to which add E. Will, ‘Le temple de Bel de Palmyre et sa place dans l’histoire de l’art de la Syrie romaine’, Les Annales archéologiques arabes syriennes 21 (1971), pp. 261-8; M. A. R. Colledge, ‘Le temple de Bel à Palmyre: qui l’a fait, et pourquoi?’, in Palmyre. Bilan et perspectives (above, notes to pp. 240-2), pp. 45-52. As a temple to the Palmyrene gods: T. Kaizer (above, notes to pp. 345-6), pp. 69-79.
P. 363 Dmeir: E. Brmmer, ‘Der rmische Tempel von Dmeir. Vorbericht’, Damaszener Mitteilungen 2 (1985), pp. 17-35; M. Klinkott, ‘Ergebnisse der Bauaufnahme am “Tempel” von Dmeir’, Damaszener Mitteilungen 4 (1989), pp. 109-61. The inscriptions are published by P. Roussel, F. De Visscher (above, notes to pp. 349-50).
Pp. 363-4 Jerusalem Temple: T. Busink, Der Tempel von Jerusalem von Salomo bis Herodes, Leiden, 1980. Damascus temple: K. S. Freyberger, ‘Untersuchungen zur Baugeschichte des Jupiter-Heiligtums in Damaskus’, Damaszener Mitteilungen 4 (1989), pp. 61-86.
Pp. 363-70 There are many works on Heliopolis. See above, notes to pp. 108-21; to which add: N. Jidejian, Baalbek: Heliopolis, ‘City of the Sun’, Beirut, 1975; K. S. Freyberger, ‘Im Licht des Sonnengottes. Deutung und Funktion des sogenannten “Bacchus-Tempels” im Heiligtum des Jupiter Heliopolitanus in Baalbek’, Damaszener Mitteilungen 12 (2000), pp. 95-133. For inscriptions from the site, see J.-P. Rey-Coquais, Inscriptions grecques et latines de la Syrie, tome VI. Baalbek et Beqa‘, Paris, 1967.
P. 366 For the cults at Heliopolis, see the articles by H. Seyrig, ‘La triade héliopolitaine et les temples de Baalbek’, Syria 10 (1929), pp. 314-56; ‘Bas-relief de la triade de Baalbek trouvé à Fneidiq’, Bulletin du Musée de Beyrouth 12 (1955), pp. 25-8; and Y. Hajjar, La Triade d’Héliopolis-Baalbek, 3 vols, Leiden, 1977-85. The two naked male figures on coins have been identified as Hermes and Dionysus: see E. M. Ruperchtsberger, below, notes to pp. 367-9.
P. 367 For the lead figurines: H. Seyrig, ‘La triade héliopolitaine’ (above, notes to p. 366); L. Badré, ‘Les figurines de plomb de ‘Ain-al-Djouj’, Syria 76 (1999), pp. 181-196.
Pp. 367-9 For details about the Temple of Jupiter, see (in addition to the sources cited above, notes to pp. 363-70) A. Hoffman, ‘Terrace and Temple: Remarks on the Architectural History of the Temple of Jupiter in Baalbek’, in H. Sader, T. Scheffer, A. Neuwirth (eds.), Baalbek: Image and Monument, 1898-1998, Beirut, 1998, 279-304; and E. M. Ruprechtsberger, Vom Steinbruch zum Jupitertempel von Heliopolis/Baalbek (Libanon), Linz, 1999. 
Pp. 370-1 The imperial cult: S. R. F. Price, Rituals and Power. The Roman Imperial Cult in Asia Minor, Cambridge, 1984; F. Millar, ‘State and Subject: the Impact of the Monarchy’, in F. Millar, A. Segal (eds), Caesar Augustus. Seven Aspects, Oxford, 1984, pp. 37-60. On the evolution of the eparchies, see J.-P. Rey-Coquais, ‘Syrie romaine’ (above, notes to pp. 80-2), pp. 53-4; M. Sartre, L’Orient romain, Paris, 1991, pp. 339-40. On the coins of cities of Coele-Syria, see A. Spijkerman, The Coins of the Decapolis and Provincia Arabia, Jerusalem, 1978. On Laodicea as ‘Metropolis of the Four Provinces’, see K. Butcher, Coinage in Roman Syria, London, 2003. For the continuation of the imperial cult after Constantine, see J. H. W. G. Liebeschuetz, ‘The Syriarch in the Fourth Century AD’, Historia 8 (1959), pp. 113-26; and, by the same author, Antioch, Oxford, 1972, pp. 141-3. G. W. Bowersock, ‘Polytheism and Monotheism in Arabia and the Three Palestines’, Dumbarton Oaks Papers 51 (1997), pp. 1-10. It was gradually shorn of its pagan aspects in order to suit Christian sensibilities, but the games of the provincial assembly at Antioch continued to be financed by a civic magistrate until AD 465, when responsibility was assigned to an imperial official.
Pp. 371-5 Jews and Samaritans: The literature on Judaism is considerable, and cannot be dealt with in detail here. See especially E. Schurer, The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ, revised by G. Vermes, F. Millar, M. Black, M. Goodman, 3 vols., Edinburgh, 1973-87; E. M. Smallwood, The Jews under Roman Rule, Leiden, 1976; M. Avi-Yonah, The Jews under Roman and Byzantine Rule, New York, 1976 (reissued 1984); G. Alon, The Jews in their Land in the Talmudic Age (70-640 CE), 2 vols., Jerusalem, 1980-4; M. Goodman, The Ruling Class of Judaea, Cambridge, 1987; L. I. Levine, The Rabbinic Class of Roman Palestine in Late Antiquity, Jerusalem-New York, 1989; F. Millar, The Roman Near East, pp. 337-86; M. Sartre, L’Orient romain, pp. 357-407; D’Alexandre à Zénobie, pp. 530-607, 927-48. Other recent studies: L. H. Feldman, Jew and Gentile in the Ancient World, Princeton, 1997; S. Schwartz, Imperialism and Jewish Society, 200 BCE to 640 CE, Princeton, 2000. For other points discussed here see Y. Hirschfeld, ‘Jewish Rural Settlement in Judaea in the Early Roman Period’, in S. E. Alcock, The Early Roman Empire in the East, pp. 72-88 (which in fact discusses early and late Roman settlement); and, by the same author, ‘Early Roman Manor Houses in Judaea and the Site of Khirbet Qumran’, Journal of Near Eastern Studies 57 (1998), pp. 161-89. On the Samaritans, see A. D. Crown (ed.), The Samaritans, Tbingen, 1989; Y. Magen, ‘Mount Garizim and the Samaritans’, in F. Manns, E. Alliata (eds), Early Christianity in Context. Monuments and Documents, Jerusalem, 1993, pp. 91-147. For Samaritan strife in late antiquity: B. Isaac, The Limits of Empire, Oxford, 1990, pp. 89-90; G. W. Bowersock, above, notes to pp. 370-1.
Pp. 375-98 The literature on Christianity is immense. For the narrative presented here, see in particular: H. Chadwick, The Early Church, London, 1967; P. Brown, The World of Late Antiquity, AD 150-750, London, 1971; R. Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians, London, 1986; R. MacMullen, Christianity in the Roman Empire, New Haven, 1984; and G. Fowden, Empire to Commonwealth. Consequences of Monotheism in Late Antiquity, Princeton, 1993. On Syria and the Near East specifically: P. Canivet, ‘Le christianisme en Syrie des origines à l’avènement de l’islam’, in J.-M. Dentzer, W. Orthmann (eds.), Archéologie et histoire de la Syrie, II, Saarbrcken, 1989, pp. 117-148; M. Sartre, D’Alexandre à Zénobie, pp. 948-58. For various regional studies: D. S. Wallace-Hadrill, Christian Antioch: A Study of Early Christian Thought in the East, Cambridge, 1982; R. Schick, The Christian Communities of Palestine from Byzantine to Islamic Rule, Princeton, 1995; and the works of A. J. Festugière: Antioche paenne et chrétienne. Libanios, Chrysostome et les moines de Syrie, Paris, 1959; Les moines d’Orient, Paris, 1960-1965.
P. 375 On the small number of Christians in the first century: K. Hopkins, A World Full of Gods, London, 1999, p. 84.
Pp. 376-7 Gnosticism: H. Jonas, The Gnostic Religion, Boston, 1958; M. A. Williams, Rethinking Gnosticism, Princeton, 1996. Marcion: H. J. W. Drijvers, ‘Marcionism in Syria’, The Second Century 6 (1987-8), pp. 153-72. Tatian: M. Whittaker, Tatian: Oratio ad Graecos and Fragments, Oxford, 1982.
P. 377 Origen: Chadwick (above, notes to pp. 375-98) provides a summary of Origen’s position. Paul of Samosata: F. Millar, ‘Paul of Samosata, Zenobia and Aurelian: the Church, Local Culture and Political Allegiance in Third-Century Syria’, Journal of Roman Studies 61 (1971), pp. 1-17.
P. 378 The Christianity of Philip the Arab: H. A. Pohlsander, ‘Philip the Arab and Christianity’, Historia 29 (1980), pp. 463-73; I. Shahid, Rome and the Arabs, Washington DC, 1984. The Decian persecution: D. S. Potter, Prophecy and History in the Crisis of the Roman Empire, Oxford, 1990, pp. 42-3, 261-7; J. B. Rives, ‘The Decree of Decius and the Religion of Empire’, Journal of Roman Studies 89 (1999), pp. 135-154. Christian discourse: A. Cameron, Christianity and the Rhetoric of Empire: The Development of Christian Discourse, Berkeley, 1991.
P. 379 Spread of Christianity into the countryside: J. H. G. W. Liebeschuetz, ‘Epigraphic evidence on the Christianisation of Syria’, Akten des XI. Internationalen Limeskongresses, Budapest, 1981, pp. 458-508.
P. 380 Julian: G. Bowersock, Julian the Apostate, London, 1978. 
P. 381 Manichaeism: P. Brown, ‘The Diffusion of Manichaeism in the Roman Empire’ Journal of Roman Studies 59 (1969), pp. 92-103; S. N. C. Lieu, Manichaeism in the Later Roman Empire and Medieval China, Tübingen, 1992.
Pp. 381-3 Christian assaults on paganism: G. Fowden, ‘Bishops and Temples in the Eastern Roman Empire, AD 320-435’, Journal of Theological Studies 29 (1978), pp. 53-78; H. J. W. Drijvers, Cults and Beliefs at Edessa, Leiden, 1980; F. R. Trombley, Hellenic Religion and Christianization AD 320-529, Vol. 1, Leiden, 1993, pp. 246-82. Carrhae’s cult: G. Fowden, From Empire to Commonwealth, pp. 62-5.
Pp. 383-4 For Rome’s relations with Christians beyond the frontiers, see Fowden, From Empire to Commonwealth.
Pp. 384-90 Monophysitism: see in particular W. H. C. Frend, The Rise of the Monophysite Movement, Cambridge, 1979.
P. 387 ‘Ek’ and ‘en’: the critical wording in the council’s doctrinal statement was ek duo physeon (‘out of two natures’) in the first draft, emended to en duo physesin (‘in two natures’) in the second.
Pp. 390-3 Asceticism: H. Delehaye, Les saints stylites, Brussels, 1923; A. Vööbus, A History of Asceticism in the Syrian Orient, Leuven, 1958-1960; P. Brown, ‘The Rise and Function of the Holy Man in Late Antiquity’, Journal of Roman Studies 61 (1971), pp. 80-101. For architecture associated with ascetics, see the works of I. Pea, P. Castellana, R. Fernández, Les stylites syriens, Milan, 1975; Les reclus syriens, Milan, 1980; Les cénobites syriens, Milan, 1983.
Pp. 393-7 Christian architecture: H. C. Butler, Early Churches in Syria: Fourth to Seventh Centuries, Leiden, 1929; J. Lassus, Sanctuaires chrétiens de Syrie, Paris, 1947; R. P. C. Hanson, ‘The Transformation of Pagan Temples into Churches in the Early Christian Centuries’, Journal of Semitic Studies 23 (1978), pp. 257-67; J. Wilkinson, ‘What Butler Saw’, Levant 16 (1984), pp. 113-27; J.-P. Sodini, ‘Les églises de Syrie du nord’, in J.-M. Dentzer, W. Orthmann (eds.), Archéologie et histoire de la Syrie, II, Saarbrcken, 1989, pp. 347-72; and, in the same volume, M. Restle, ‘Les monuments chrétiens de la Syrie du Sud’, pp. 373-84; J.-L. Biscop, Deir Déhès, monastère d’Antiochène, Beirut, 1997. Temple at Slim: K. S. Freyberger, ‘Der Tempel in Slim: Ein Bericht’, Damaszener Mitteilungen 5 (1991), pp. 9-38. Qalaat Semaan: J.-P. Sodini, ‘Travaux récents au sanctuaire syrien de St. Syméon le Stylite’, Comptes rendus de l’Acadmie des inscriptions et belles-lettres (1983), pp. 335-72.
P. 396 Umm al-Jimal churches: B. de Vries (above, notes to p. 106), p. 11.

Chapter 10: The Military

The literature on this subject is large. In general: E. N. Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, Baltimore, 1976; J. C. Mann, ‘Power, Force and the Frontiers of the Empire’ (review of Luttwak), Journal of Roman Studies 69 (1979), pp. 175-83; C. R. Whittaker, Frontiers of the Roman Empire. A Social and Economic Study, London, 1994; H. Elton, Frontiers of the Roman Empire, London, 1996.
For the eastern provinces: P. Freeman, D. Kennedy (eds.), The Defence of the Roman and Byzantine East, Oxford, 1986; D. H. French, C. S. Lightfoot (eds), The Eastern Frontier of the Roman Empire, 3 vols, Oxford, 1989; B. Isaac, The Limits of Empire. The Roman Army in the East, Oxford, 1990 (revised edition, 1992); D. Kennedy, ‘The East’, in J. Wacher (ed.), The Roman World, Vol. 1, London, 1987, pp. 266-308; E. Dabrowa (ed.), The Roman and Byzantine Army in the East, Cracow, 1994; P. Southern, K. R. Dixon, The Late Roman Army, London, 1996; D. L. Kennedy (ed.), The Roman Army in the East, Ann Arbor, 1996. Syria: E. Dabrowa, ‘The Frontier in Syria in the First Century AD’, in P. Freeman, D. Kennedy (eds), The Defence of the Roman and Byzantine East, pp. 93-108; M. Gawlikowski, ‘The Roman Frontier on the Euphrates’, Mesopotamia 22 (1987), pp. 77-80; N. Pollard, Soldiers, Cities, and Civilians in Roman Syria, Ann Arbor, 2000. Palestine and Arabia: M. P. Speidel, ‘The Roman Army in Arabia’, Aufstieg und Niedergang der rmischen Welt II.8 (1978), pp. 687-730; D. Kennedy, Archaeological Explorations on the Roman Frontier in North East Jordan, Oxford, 1982; M. P. Spiedel, ‘The Roman Army in Judaea under the Procurators. The Italian and the Augustan Cohort in the Acts of the Apostles’, Ancient Society 13-14 (1982-3), pp. 233-40; D. Graf, Rome and the Arabian Frontier: From the Nabataeans to the Saracens, Ashgate, 1997. Mesopotamia: J. Wagner, ‘Provincia Osrhoenae: New Archaeological Finds Illustrating the Military Organisation under the Severan Dynasty’, in S. Mitchell (ed.), Armies and Frontiers in Roman and Byzantine Anatolia, Oxford, 1983, pp. 103-30; D. Kennedy, ‘The Garrisoning of Mesopotamia in the Late Antonine and Early Severan Periods’, Antichthon 21 (1987), pp. 57-66.
For early ideas (and spectacular aerial photographs) about defences in the region see A. Poidebard, La trace de Rome dans le désert de Syrie. Le limes de Trajan à la conquête Arabe. Recherches aériennes (1925-1932), 2 vols., Paris, 1934; and R. Mouterde, A. Poidebard, Le limes de Chalcis. Organisation de la steppe en Haute Syrie romaine, Paris, 1945. A number of these early photographs have been collected and published with expert commentaries and plans by D. Kennedy, D. Riley, Rome’s Desert Frontier from the Air, London, 1990.

	Pp. 399-400 Lack of integration of soldiers and civilians: this is a theme explored by N. Pollard, ‘The Roman Army as a “Total Institution” in the Near East? Dura-Europos as a Case Study’, in D. Kennedy, The Roman Army in the East, pp. 211-27; and his book Soldiers, Cities and Civilians in Roman Syria. See also S. James, ‘The Community of Soldiers: a Major Identity and Centre of Power in the Roman Empire’, in P. Baker, S. Jundi, R. Witcher, TRAC 98: Proceedings of the Eighth Annual Theoretical Roman Archaeology Conference, Leicester 1998, Oxford, 1998, pp. 14-25. Soldiers billetted in cities among civilians: some scholars question whether this was commonplace, and indeed there is not much evidence. Mixing of military and locals at Bostra: at least, not in the realms of religion or marriage: M. Sartre, Inscriptions grecques et latines de la Syrie XIII. Bostra, Paris, 1982; and, by the same author, Bostra, Paris, 1985, p. 156. Papyrus of the cohors XX Palmyrenorum: R. O. Fink, A. S. Hoey, W. S. Snyder, ‘The Feriale Duranum’, Yale Classical Studies 7 (1940), pp. 1-222; and C. B. Welles, R. O. Fink, J. F. Gilliam (above, notes to pp. 142-5), pp. 191-212.
	P. 400-2 Ethnic makeup: Pollard, Soldiers, Cities and Civilians, pp. 110-34, 138-42. Recruitment of Syrians: D. Kennedy, ‘The Military Contribution of Syria to the Roman Army’, in D. H. French, C. S. Lightfoot (eds), The Eastern Frontier of the Roman Empire, Oxford, 1989, pp. 235-46. Sons of veterans serving: N. Pollard, Soldiers, Cities and Civilians, p. 249. Standing of soldiers in local communities: a theme explored by H. I. MacAdam, Studies in the History of the Roman Province of Arabia. The Northern Sector, Oxford, 1986. Veterans in the limestone massif: Evidence summarized in Pollard, pp. 247-8. In the Hauran: H. I. MacAdam, Studies. Dura Europus: Pollard, Soldiers, Cities and Civilians.
	P. 402-3 Military interference: Pollard, Soldiers, Cities and Civilians, pp. 85-96. Barbalissus and Callinicum: Pollard, p. 222; Liebeschuetz, Antioch, p. 163. 
	Pp. 404-5 Abila: W. H. Waddington, Inscriptions Grecques et Latines de la Syrie, recueillies et expliquées, Paris, 1870, no. 1874. Civic coins and soldiers: R. Ziegler, ‘Civic Coins and Imperial Campaigns’, in D. Kennedy, The Roman Army in the East, pp. 119-34.
	Pp. 405-11 Strategies: see in particular the works of E. N. Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, Baltimore, 1976; and B. Isaac, The Limits of Empire. The Roman Army in the East, Oxford, 1990 (revised edition, 1992). The case for defence against external foes, particularly nomads, is presented in the works of S. T. Parker: Romans and Saracens. A History of the Arabian Frontier, Winona Lake, 1986; The Roman Frontier in Central Jordan: Interim Report on the Limes Arabicus Project 1980-1985, Oxford, 1987. The case for internal policing: B. Isaac, The Limits of Empire; D. Graf, ‘Rome and the Saracens: Reassessing the Nomad Menace’, in T. Fahd (ed.), L’Arabie préislamique et son environnement historique et culturel, Leiden, 1989, pp. 344-400. Summary of the debates: P.-L. Gatier, ‘Une frontière sans limes?’, in L. Nordiguian, J.-F. Salles (eds.), Aux origines de l’archéologie aérienne. A. Poidebard (1878-1955), Beirut, 2000, pp. 139–149. See also P. Mayerson, ‘Saracens and Romans: Micro-Macro Relationships’, Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 274 (1989), pp. 71-9.
P. 407 Limes: B. Isaac, ‘The Meaning of the terms Limes and Limitanei’, Journal of Roman Studies 78 (1988), pp. 125-147.
P. 408 Cassius Dio on Mesopotamia: 75.3. See also comments on pp. 48-9.
P. 409 Safaitic graffiti: M. C. A. MacDonald (above, notes to pp. 287-8).
Pp. 409-10 On bandits in general: B. D. Shaw, ‘Bandits in the Roman Empire’ Past and Present 105 (1984), pp. 3-52; and, by the same author, ‘The Bandit’, in A. Giardina (ed.), The Romans, Chicago-London, 1993, pp. 300-41. For regional studies, see the works of B. Isaac, ‘Bandits in Judaea and Arabia’, Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 88 (1984), pp. 171-203; The Limits of Empire, pp. 77-99. Isaurian bandits: B. Isaac, The Limits of Empire, pp. 75-6.
Pp. 411-15 Units and deployments: J.-P. Rey-Coquais, ‘Syrie romaine’ (above, notes to pp. 80-2), pp. 67-71; L. J. F. Keppie, ‘Legions in the East from Augustus to Trajan’, in P. Freeman, D. Kennedy, The Defence of the Roman and Byzantine East, pp. 411-29; J.-Ch. Balty, ‘Apamée (1986): Nouvelles données sur l’armée romaine d’Orient et les raids Sassanides du milieu du IIIe siècle’, Comptes rendus de l’Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres (1978), pp. 213-42.
Pp. 412-13 I have not attempted to give a list of auxiliary units and their locations. A summary is provided by J.-P. Rey-Coquais, ‘Syrie romaine’ (above, notes to pp. 80-2), pp. 68-9; see also E. Dabrowa, ‘Les troupes auxiliaires de l’armée romaine en Syrie au Ier s. de notre ère’, Dialogue d’Histoire Ancienne 5 (1979), pp. 233-54. Diplomas: N. Pollard, Soldiers, Cities and Civilians, pp. 120-5. The camp at Dmeir is reassessed by M. Lenoir, ‘Dumayr, faux camp romain, vraie résidence palatiale’, Syria 76 (1999), pp. 227-236. Fleet: H. Seyrig, ‘Le cimitière des marins à Séleucie de Piérie’, in Mélanges syriens offerts à René Dussaud, Paris, 1939, pp. 451-9; C. G. Starr, The Roman Imperial Navy, New York, 1941; N. Pollard, Soldiers, Cities and Civilians in Roman Syria, pp. 279-283. Vespasian may have been the creator of the classis Syriaca: see F. Millar, The Roman Near East, pp. 89-90. Royal armies: M. H. Gracey, ‘The Armies of the Judaean Client Kings’, in P. Freeman, D. Kennedy, The Defence of the Roman and Byzantine East, pp. 311-323; J. Bowsher, ‘The Nabataean Army’, in D. H. French, C. S. Lightfoot (eds), The Eastern Frontier of the Roman Empire, pp. 19-30. 
Pp. 413-15 Estimates of overall strength of armies: D. Kennedy, D. Riley, Rome’s Desert Frontier, pp. 43-46. Notitia Dignitatum: O. Seeck, Notitia Digntitatum, Frankfurt, 1962 (reprint of the 1876 edition).
Pp. 414-15 Law of AD 443: Novels of Theodosius 24.1.4. Limitanei: see Isaac (above, notes to p. 407). Reduction in troop numbers, and 50,000 at the Battle of the Yarmuk: D. Kennedy, D. Riley, Rome’s Desert Frontier, p. 45. But see also B. Isaac, ‘The Army in the Late Roman East’, in A. Cameron (ed.), The Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East III. States, Resources and Armies, Princeton, 1995, pp. 125-55.
Pp. 415-20 For fortifications and other installations, see especially S. Gregory, Roman Military Architecture on the Eastern Frontier, 3 vols., Amsterdam, 1995-1997, and D. Kennedy, D. Riley, Rome’s Desert Frontier.
Pp. 415-16 For Azraq and Jauf, see D. L. Kennedy, H. I. MacAdam, ‘Some Latin Inscriptions from the Azraq Oasis, Jordan’, Zeitschrift fr Papyrologie und Epigraphik 60 (1983), pp. 253-63; M. P. Speidel, ‘The Roman Road to Dumatha (Jawf in Saudi Arabia) and the Frontier Strategy of the Praetensione Colligare’, Historia 36 (1987), pp. 211-221 and T. Bauzou, ‘La praetensio de Bostra à Dumata (el-Jowf)’, Syria 73 (1996), pp. 23-35. An important essay on the Strata Diocletiana is by T. Bauzou, ‘La “Strata Diocletiana”, in L. Nordiguian, J.-F. Salles (eds.), Aux origines de l’archéologie aérienne, Beirut, 2000, pp. 79-91. See also R. Mouterde, ‘La Strata Diocletiana et ses bornes milliaires’, Mélanges de l’Université Saint-Joseph 15 (1930), pp. 221-33, 339-40; D. van Berchem, L’armée de Dioclétien et la réforme constantinienne, Paris, 1952; J. Eadie, ‘The Transformation of the Eastern Frontier, 260-305’, in R. W. Mathisen, H. S. Sivan (ed.), Shifting Frontiers in Late Antiquity, Aldershot, 1996, pp. 72-82. On the northern section from Palmyra to Sura, see M. Konrad, ‘Research on the Roman and early Byzantine frontier in North Syria’, Journal of Roman Archaeology 12 (1999), pp. 392-410; and, for evidence of pre-tetrarchic occupation in the area of the ‘strata’, M. Konrad, ‘Frhkaizerzeitliche Befestigungen an der Strata Diocletiana? Neue Kleinfunde des 1. Jahrhunderts n. Chr. Aus Nordsyrien’, Damaszener Mitteilungen 9 (1996), pp. 163-80. See also the comments of G. Tate, ‘Le problème de la défense et du peuplement de la steppe et du désert, dans le nord de la Syrie, entre la chute de Palmyre et le règne de Justinien’, Les Annales archéologiques arabes syriennes 42 (1996), pp. 331-7. On the southern section of the ‘Strata’, see T. Bauzou, ‘Les voies de communication dans le Hauran à l’époque romaine’, in J.-M. Dentzer (ed.), Hauran I, Paris, 1985, pp. 137-65, especially at p. 153. Procopius and the Strata: History of the Wars, 2.1.6.
P. 417 On assumptions about forts: S. Gregory, ‘Was there an eastern origin for the design of late Roman fortifications? Some problems for research on forts of Rome’s eastern frontier’, in D. Kennedy, The Roman Army in the East, pp. 169-209, and, by the same author, Roman Military Architecture (above, notes to pp. 415-20).
Pp. 418-19 Lejjun: S. T. Parker, ‘Legio IV Martia and the Legionary Camp at el-Lejjun’, Byzantinsche Forschungen 8 (1982), pp. 185-210. Udruh: A. Killick, Udruh: Caravan City and Desert Oasis, Romsey, 1987. Palmyra: M. Gawlikowski, Palmyre VIII. Les Principia de Dioclétien (‘Camp des Enseignes’), Warsaw, 1984. Tell el-Hajj: R. Stucky, ‘Erster vorlafiger Bericht ber die auf Tell el-Hajj durchgefhrten Schweizerischen Archologischen Ausgrabungen’, Les Annales archéologiques arabes Syriennes 23 (1973), pp. 161-200; R. Stucky, ‘Tell el-Hajj 1972’, Les Annales archéologiques arabes Syriennes 25 (1975), pp. 165-81. On the typology and dating of forts: Gregory (above, notes to p. 417); J. Lander, Roman Stone Fortifications: Variation and Change from the First Century AD to the Fourth, Oxford, 1984; P. Leriche, ‘Les fortifications grecques et romaines en Syrie’, J.-M. Dentzer, W. Orthmann (eds.), Archéologie et histoire de la Syrie, II, pp. 267-82. Experiments in signalling: S. T. Parker, Limes Arabicus Project 1980-85, Oxford, 1987.

Epilogue: The Furniture of Hellenism?

For the early Islamic period in general, see H. Kennedy, The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates, London and New York, 1986, and P. K. Hitti, History of the Arabs, London, 1970. A useful collection of primary sources for the period is provided by A. Palmer, S. Brock, R. Hoyland, The Seventh Century in the West-Syrian Chronicles, Liverpool, 1993.

Pp. 422-3 On the Muslim conquest, see F. M. Donner, The Early Islamic Conquests, Princeton, 1981; W. Kaegi, Byzantium and the Early Islamic Conquests, Cambridge, 1992; and, by the same author, Heraclius, Emperor of Byzantium, Cambridge, 2002. There is some uncertainty about where the boundary between Rome and the Sasanian realm lay after the treaty of 629. In spite of the treaty Shahrbaraz seems to have resisted its implementation, briefly usurping the kingdom in 630: see G. Greatrex and S. N. C. Lieu, The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars, London, 2002, pp. 226-228.
P. 424 For the Berytus evidence: K. Butcher, R. Thorpe, ‘A Note on Excavations in Central Beirut, 1994-96’, Journal of Roman Archaeology 10 (1997), pp. 291-306; D. Perring, ‘Excavations in the Souks of Beirut’, Berytus 43 (1997-8), pp. 9-34. The ‘death’ and ‘assassination’ contrast was drawn by A. Piganiol, L’empire chrétien (325-395), Paris, 1947, p. 422. See also M. Whittow, The Making of Orthodox Byzantium, 606-1025, London, 1996.
Pp. 424-5 For the transition from Roman to Islamic cities, see especially H. Kennedy, ‘From “Polis” to “Madina”: Urban Change in Late Antique and Early Islamic Syria’, Past and Present 106 (February 1985), pp. 3-27, and, by the same author: ‘The Last Century of Byzantine Syria: A Reinterpretation’, Byzantinische Forschungen 10 (1985), pp. 141-183; H. I. MacAdam, ‘Settlements and Settlement Patterns in Northern and Central Transjordania, ca. 550-ca. 750’, in G. R. D. King, A. Cameron (eds.), The Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East II. Land Use and Settlement Patterns, Princeton, 1994, pp. 49-94; and C. Foss (above, notes to pp. 261-9), especially his conclusions, pp. 258-269. Other works: P. Canivet, J.-P. Rey-Coquais, La Syrie de Byzance à l’Islam, VIIe – VIIIe siècles, Damascus, 1992; G. P. Brogiolo, B. Ward-Perkins (eds), The Idea and Ideal of the Town Between Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages, Leiden, 1999. For the Berytus baths, see K. Butcher, R. Thorpe, (above, notes to p. 424). The role of the nomad economy in the conquest is advanced by P. Pentz, The Invisible Conquest. The Ontogenesis of Sixth and Seventh Century Syria, Copenhagen, 1992.
	Pp. 425-34 The Umayyads: An entire volume of Aram (6.1, 1994) is dedicated to the Umayyads in Bilad al-Sham. Case studies of individual sites include Kh. Asaad, F. M. Steppionowski, ‘The Umayyad Suq in Palmyra’, Damaszener Mitteilungen 4 (1989), pp. 205-23; and Y. Tsafrir, G. Foerster, ‘Urbanism at Scythopolis-Bet Shean’, Dumbarton Oaks Papers 51 (1997), pp. 85-146. 
Pp. 428-9 Amman citadel: G. L. Harding, ‘Excavations on the Citadel of Amman’, Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan 1 (1951), pp. 7-16; A. Northedge, Studies on Roman and Islamic Amman, vol. 1. History, Site and Architecture, Oxford, 1992. Aanjar: M. Chehab, ‘The Umayyad Palace at ‘Anjar’, Ars Orientalis 5 (1963), pp. 17-25; A. Northedge, ‘Archaeology and New Urban Settlement in Early Islamic Syria and Iraq’, in G. R. D. King, A. Cameron (eds.), The Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East II. Land Use and Settlement Patterns, Princeton, 1994, pp. 231-65; R. Hillenbrand, ‘Anjar and Early Islamic Urbanism’, in G. P. Brogiolo, B. Ward-Perkins (eds), The Idea and Ideal of the Town (above, notes to pp. 424-5), pp. 59-98. For a comparison of some early Islamic planned sites: D. Whitcomb, ‘The Misr of Ayla: Settlement at al-‘Aqaba in the Early Islamic Period’, in King and Cameron, pp. 155-170. Déhès: J.-P. Sodini et al. (above, notes to pp. 145-53). On ‘stagnation’ because of population pressures, see the work of G. Tate, above, notes to pp. 145-53. Qasr al-Heir al Gharbi: M. Meinecke, ‘Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi’, in H. Weiss (ed.), Ebla to Damascus, Washington DC, 1985, pp. 484-7; D. Schlumberger, Qasr el-Heir el-Gharbi, Paris, 1986. Qasr al-Heir al-Sharqi: O. Grabar, R. Holod, J. Knustadt, W. Trousdale, City in the Desert. Qasr al-Hayr East, Harvard Middle Eastern Monographs 23/24 (1978). Umayyad sites in Chalcidice: B. Geyer, above, notes to pp. 153-6.
Pp. 430-1 Imports to Berytus: P. Reynolds, personal communication. Coins of Constans II: T. Goodwin, M. Phillips (above, notes to pp. 220-21). On the ‘Amra paintings, see F. Zayadine, ‘The Frescoes of Quseir ‘Amra’, Archaeology 3 (1979), pp. 19-29; O. Grabar, ‘La place de Qusayr Amrah dans l’art profane du Haut Moyen Age’, Cahiers archéologiques 36 (1988), pp. 75-83.
Pp. 431-4 Umayyad art: O. Grabar, The Formation of Islamic Art, New Haven, 1973. The survival of Hellenism: see especially G. W. Bowersock, Hellenism in Late Antiquity, Ann Arbor, 1990; and S. Swain, ‘Hellenism in the East’, Journal of Roman Archaeology 6 (1993), pp. 461-466 (from which the furniture metaphor for this chapter’s title derives). Kastron Mefaa mosaics, date of: J. Balty, ‘Les mosaques d’Umm al-Rasas et la date de 718’, Journal of Roman Archaeology 11 (1998), pp. 700-2. Damascus mosque and its mosaics: R. Frtsch, ‘Die Architekturdarstellungen der Umaiyadenmoschee von Damaskos und die Rolle ihrer antiken Vorbilder’, Damaszener Mitteilungen 7 (1993), pp. 177-212.
P. 433 Syriac: see S. Brock, above, notes to pp. 285-7.
P. 435 Abbasid change: Many sites in the south never recovered from the earthquake of AD 749. See, for example, Y. Tsafrir, G. Foerster, ‘Urbanism at Scythopolis’ (above, notes to pp. 425-34). Berytus: K. Butcher, R. Thorpe (above, notes to pp. 230-1). Aila: R. Khouri, D. Whitcomb, Aqaba. “Port of Palestine on the China Sea”, Amman, 1988. Ceramics: R. Faulkner, ‘Jordan in the Early Islamic Period. The Use and Abuse of Pottery’, Berytus 41 (1993-4), pp. 39-52.