The fabrication and use of a multifunctional electrochemical probe incorporating two independent carbon working electrodes and two electrolyte-filled barrels, equipped with quasi-reference counter electrodes (QRCEs), in the end of a tapered micron-scale pipet is described. This ‘quad-probe’ (4-channel probe) was fabricated by depositing carbon pyrolytically into two diagonally opposite barrels of a laser-pulled quartz quadruple-barrelled pipet. After filling the open channels with electrolyte solution, a meniscus forms at the end of the probe and covers the two working electrodes. The two carbon electrodes can be used to drive local electrochemical reactions within the meniscus while a bias between the QRCEs in the electrolyte channels provides an ion conductance signal that is used to control and position the meniscus on a surface of interest. When brought into contact with a surface, localized high resolution amperometric imaging can be achieved with the two carbon working electrodes with a spatial resolution defined by the meniscus contact area. The substrate can be an insulating material or (semi)conductor, but herein we focus mainly on conducting substrates that can be connected as a third working electrode. Studies using both aqueous and ionic liquid electrolytes in the probe, together with gold and individual single walled carbon nanotube samples, demonstrate the utility of the technique. Substrate generation-dual tip collection measurements are shown to be characterized by high collection efficiencies (approaching 100%). This hybrid configuration of scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) and scanning electrochemical cell microscopy (SECCM) should be powerful for future applications in electrode mapping, as well as in studies of insulating materials as demonstrated by transient spot redox-titration measurements at an electrostatically charged Teflon surface and at a pristine calcite surface, where a functionalized probe is used to follow the immediate pH change due to dissolution.

Nanopipets are versatile tools for nanoscience, particularly when used in scanning ion conductance microscopy (SICM) to determine, in a noncontact manner, the topography of a sample. We present a new method, applying an oscillating bias between a quasi-reference counter electrode (QRCE) in the SICM nanopipet probe and a second QRCE in the bulk solution, to generate a feedback signal to control the distance between the end of a nanopipet and a surface. Both the amplitude and phase of the oscillating ion current, induced by the oscillating bias and extracted using a phase-sensitive detector, are shown to be sensitive to the probe–surface distance and are used to provide stable feedback signals. The phase signal is particularly sensitive at high frequencies of the oscillating bias (up to 30 kHz herein). This development eliminates the need to physically oscillate the probe to generate an oscillating ion current feedback signal, as needed for conventional SICM modes. Moreover, bias modulation allows a feedback signal to be generated without any net ion current flow, ensuring that any polarization of the quasi reference counter electrodes, electro-osmotic effects, and perturbations of the supporting electrolyte composition are minimized. Both feedback signals, magnitude and phase, are analyzed through approach curve measurements to different surfaces at a range of distinct frequencies and via impedance measurements at different distances from a surface. The bias modulated response is readily understood via a simple equivalent circuit model. Bias modulated (BM)-SICM is compared to conventional SICM imaging through measurements of substrates with distinct topographical features and yields equivalent results. Finally, BM-SICM with both amplitude and phase feedback is used for topographical imaging of subtle etch features in a calcite crystal surface. The 2 modes yield similar results, but phase-detection opens up the prospect of faster imaging.

The effect of systematic anodic pre-treatments of pristine single walled carbon nanotube (SWNT) forests on the electrochemical response towards a variety of redox processes is investigated. An experimental arrangement is adopted whereby a microcapillary containing the solution of interest and a quasi reference-counter electrode is brought into contact with a small portion of the forest to enable measurements on the surface before and after controlled anodic polarisation (AP). AP of the surface is found to both improve the voltammetric response (faster apparent heterogeneous electron transfer kinetics) of surface sensitive redox processes, such as Fe^2+/3+, and enhance the electrocatalytic response of the SWNTs towards oxygen reduction; the extent of which can be carefully controlled via the applied anodic potential. AP is expected to remove any trace organic (atmospheric) contaminants that may accumulate on the forest over extended periods as well as allowing the controlled introduction of defects, as confirmed by micro-Raman spectroscopy.

Understanding the relationship between electrochemical activity and electrode structure is vital for improving the efficiency of dye-sensitized solar cells. Here, the reduction of triiodide to iodide in 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate ([BMIm][BF₄]) room temperature ionic liquid (RTIL) is investigated on polycrystalline platinum using scanning electrochemical cell microscopy (SECCM) and correlated to the crystallographic orientation from electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD). Although the rate determining step in all grains was the first electron transfer, significant grain-dependent variations in activity were revealed, with grains with a dominant (110) crystallographic character exhibiting higher catalytic activity compared to those with a major (100) orientation. The SECCM technique is demonstrated to resolve heterogeneity in activity, highlighting that methods incorporating polycrystalline electrodes miss vital details for understanding and optimizing electrocatalysts. An additional advantage of the SECCM over single-crystal techniques is its ability to probe high index facets.

Interest in the controlled chemical functionalization of sp² carbon materials using diazonium compounds has been recently reignited, particularly as a means to generate a band gap in graphene. We demonstrate local diazonium modification of pristine sp² carbon surfaces, with high control, at the micrometer scale through the use of scanning electrochemical cell microscopy (SECCM). Electrochemically driven diazonium patterning is investigated at a range of driving forces, coupled with surface analysis using atomic force microscopy (AFM) and Raman spectroscopy. We highlight how the film density, level of sp²/sp³ rehybridization and the extent of multilayer formation can be controlled, paving the way for the use of localized electrochemistry as a route to controlled diazonium modification.

A novel electrochemical approach to modifying aqueous solution pH in the vicinity of a detector electrode in order to optimize the electrochemical measurement signal is described. A ring disk electrode was employed where electrochemical decomposition of water on the ring was used to generate a flux of protons which adjusts the local pH controllably and quantifiably at the disk. Boron doped diamond (BDD) functioned as the electrode material given the stability of this electrode surface especially when applying high potentials (to electrolyze water) for significant periods of time. A pH sensitive iridium oxide electrode electrodeposited on the disk electrode demonstrated that applied positive currents on the BDD ring, up to +50 μA, resulted in a local pH decrease of over 4 orders of magnitude, which remained stable over the measurement time of 600 s. pH generation experiments were found to be in close agreement with finite element simulations. The dual electrode arrangement was used to significantly improve the stripping peak signature for Hg in close to neutral conditions by the generation of pH = 2.0, locally. With the ability to create a localized pH change electrochemically in the vicinity of the detector electrode, this system could provide a simple method for optimized analysis at the source, e.g., river and sea waters.