As part of the revolution in electrochemical nanoscience, there is growing interest in using electrochemistry to create nanostructured materials, and to assess properties at the nanoscale. Herein, we present a platform that combines scanning electrochemical cell microscopy with ex-situ scanning transmission electron microscopy, to allow the ready creation of an array of nanostructures coupled with atomic-scale analysis. As an illustrative example, we explore the electrodeposition of Pt at carbon-coated transmission electron microscopy (TEM) grid supports, where in a single high-throughput experiment it is shown that Pt nanoparticle (PtNP) density increases and size polydispersity decreases with increasing overpotential (i.e., driving force). Furthermore, the coexistence of a range of nanostructures − from single atoms to aggregates of crystalline PtNPs − during the early stages of electrochemical nucleation and growth supports a non-classical aggregative growth mechanism. Beyond this exemplary system, the presented correlative electrochemistry−microscopy approach is generally applicable to solve the ubiquitous structure-function problems in electrochemical science and beyond, positioning it as a powerful plat-form for the rational design of functional nanomaterials.

Conductive polymers are exceptionally promising for modular electrochemical applications including chemical sensors, bioelectronics, redox-flow batteries, and photo-electrochemical systems due to considerable synthetic tunability and ease of processing. Despite well-established structural heterogeneity in these systems, conventional macroscopic electroanalytical methods – specifically cyclic voltammetry – are typically used as the primary tool for structure-property elucidation. This work presents an alternative correlative multi-microscopy strategy; data from laboratory and synchrotron-based micro-spectroscopies, including conducting-atomic force microscopy and synchrotron nanoscale infrared spectroscopy, is combined with potentiodynamic movies of electrochemical fluxes from scanning electrochemical cell microscopy (SECCM) to reveal the relationship between electrode structure and activity. A model conductive polymer electrode system of tailored heterogeneity is investigated, consisting of phase-segregated domains of poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) surrounded by contiguous regions of insulating poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), representing an ultramicroelectrode array. Isolated domains of P3HT are shown to retain bulk-like chemical and electronic structure when blended with PMMA, and possess approximately equivalent electron-transfer rate constants compared to pure P3HT electrodes. The nanoscale electrochemical data are used to model and predict multiscale electrochemical behavior, revealing that macroscopic cyclic voltammograms should be much more kinetically facile than observed experimentally. This indicates that parasitic resistances rather than redox kinetics play a dominant role in macroscopic measurements in these conducting polymer systems. SECCM further demonstrates that the ambient degradation of the P3HT electroactivity within P3HT/PMMA blends is spatially heterogeneous. This work serves as a roadmap for benchmarking the quality of conductive polymer films as electrodes, emphasizing the importance of nanoscale electrochemical measurements in understanding macroscopic properties.

Anodic Stripping Voltammetry (ASV) has the capability to detect heavy metals at sub ppb-level with portable and cheap instrumentation making it ideal for in the field (at the source) analysis, however, commercial activity is surprisingly limited. The more commonly used liquid mercury electrodes are now obsolete due to toxicity concerns, and replacements are all based around solid electrodes, which come with their own challenges. This tutorial review aims to discuss the experimental practicalities of ASV, providing a clear overview of the issues for consideration, which can serve as a guide for anyone wanting to undertake analytical ASV. Choice of electrode material (with or without subsequent modification) and solution composition (pH, electrolyte, buffer) are important parameters, as well as an understanding of pH dependent metal speciation and possible intermetallic effects. Measurements made on model solutions often differ from those made on environmental samples with the latter containing organic matter, biological and inorganic species, which themselves can adsorb metal ions. Consideration should also be given to the method of solution collection and the sample container utilised. ASV can be a powerful tool to an analytical chemist, however optimisation for the application of interest is essential, which this review aims to help guide.

To fully elucidate the structural controls on corrosion-related processes at metal surfaces, experimental measurements should correlate and compare directly structure and activity at the scale of surface heterogeneities (e.g., individual grains, grain boundaries, inclusions etc.). For example, the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER), which usually serves as the cathodic counterpart to anodic metal dissolution in acidic media, may be highly sensitive to surface microstructure, highlighting the need for nanoscale-resolution electrochemical techniques. In this study, we employ scanning electrochemical cell microscopy (SECCM) in conjunction with co-located scanning electron microscopy, electron backscatter diffraction, and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy to elucidate the relationship between surface structure/composition and HER activity on low carbon steel in aqueous sulfuric acid (pH ≈ 2.3). Through this correlative electrochemical multimicroscopy approach, we show that the HER activity of the low index grains (slightly) decreases in the order (100) > (111) > (101), with grain-dependent free energy of hydrogen adsorption (calculated for the low index planes of iron using density functional theory, DFT) proposed as a tentative explanation for this subtle structural-dependence. More significantly, we show that the HER is greatly facilitated by sub-micron surface defects, specifically grain boundaries and MnS inclusions, directly identifying these heterogeneities as potential “cathodic sites” during (atmospheric) corrosion. This study demonstrates the considerable attributes of correlative SECCM for identifying nanoscale active sites on surfaces, greatly aiding understanding of corrosion and electrocatalytic processes.

Palladium acetate (Pd-acetate) is a common catalyst used in a wide array of organic synthetic reactions in non-aqueous solvents. Due to its high cost and associated toxicity/contamination issues in reaction mixtures, Pd removal and recovery is essential. Here we explore the use of electrodeposition as a means to remove Pd from an acetonitrile (MeCN) based Suzuki cross coupling reaction solution, by plating metallic Pd onto the surface of an electrode (boron doped diamond). We show the importance of adding tolerable volumes of water to the reaction mixture in order to facilitate the electrodeposition process. In MeCN, strong coordination bonds exist between the Pd cation and acetate groups and electrodeposition is not possible. By adding water in controlled quantities we show using spectroscopic, electrochemical and microscopic techniques that acetate ligands are released from Pd co-ordination and first replaced by MeCN molecules, enabling electrodeposition. As the water content increases, the MeCN co-ordinating molecules are replaced by water, due to the favourable water–MeCN interactions overcoming those of Pd cation–MeCN, also promoting electrodeposition. We show that sufficient perturbation of the Pd-acetate structure to enable electrodeposition is possible in MeCN solutions containing as little as 5% water (v/v). We demonstrate 99.4% removal of Pd, as metallic Pd plated onto the electrode surface, from a Suzuki reaction solution, using electrochemical methods.

Screen-printed carbon electrodes (SPCEs) are widely used for electrochemical sensors. However, little is known about their electrochemical behavior at the microscopic level. In this work, we use voltammetric scanning electrochemical cell microscopy (SECCM), with dual-channel probes, to determine the microscopic factors governing the electrochemical response of SPCEs. SECCM cyclic voltammetry (CV) measurements are performed directly in hundreds of different locations of SPCEs, with high spatial resolution, using a sub-µm sized probe. Further, the localized electrode activity is spatially-correlated to co-located surface structure information from scanning electron microscopy and micro-Raman spectroscopy. This approach is applied to two model electrochemical processes: hexaammineruthenium (III/II) ([Ru(NH₃)₆]³+/²+), a well-known outer-sphere redox couple; and dopamine (DA) which undergoes a more complex electron-proton coupled electro-oxidation, with complications from adsorption of both DA and side-products. The electrochemical reduction of [Ru(NH3)6]3+proceeds fairly uniformly across the surface of SPCEs on the sub-µm scale. In contrast, DA electro-oxidation shows a strong dependence on the microstructure of the SPCE. By studying this process at different concentrations of DA, the relative contributions of (i) intrinsic electrode kinetics and (ii) adsorption of DA are elucidated in detail, as a function of local electrode character and surface structure. These studies provide major new insights on the electrochemical activity of SPCEs and further position voltammetric SECCM as a powerful technique for the electrochemical imaging of complex, heterogeneous and topographically rough electrode surfaces.