The Digital Second Shift: Gender Gap in Parenting App Usage in China

765/2025 Huan Cai, Lu Dong, Jian Xie

This paper examines gender disparities in parenting in the digital domain, using a novel dataset that records the gender composition of users across more than 6,000 app-level observations in China. Two patterns stand out. First, parenting apps are strongly feminized: women account for nearly two-thirds of users, compared to fewer than half for the typical non-parenting app. Second, the female share is highest in cities where women enjoy greater income and educational attainment, and lowest in areas marked by more entrenched gender inequality. The women most engaged in digital caregiving are therefore those best positioned to transcend traditional roles. Mechanism analysis suggests that this is not driven by broader digital fluency among affluent women, but rather reflects their intentional choice for intensive parenting practices.

Gender, Health and Wellbeing