18th and Early 19th Centuries

• Race and science emerges, attempting to justify racism through scientific theories.

• Racial stereotypes become prevalent, painting entire groups of people with a broad brush and limiting their individual potential. These stereotypes are often based on prejudice and ignorance and can lead to discrimination and unfair treatment.

Late 19th and Early 20th Centuries

• The concept of racial inferiority is used to justify colonialism and imperialism, as European powers expand their empires and subjugate people of color around the world. This belief in racial inferiority leads to widespread oppression and exploitation.

• The eugenics movement gains popularity, advocating for the selective breeding of humans to improve the human race. This movement is based on the flawed notion that certain races are superior to others and that this superiority can be passed on through genetics.

• The field of psychology begins to explore the roots of racism, with early psychologists such as William James and Gordon Allport studying prejudice and discrimination. These early studies lay the foundation for future research on the psychological causes of racism.

EugenicsRace & Intelligence

Eugenics

Eugenics

Eugenics, the practice of selectively breeding individuals for desired heritable traits, was based on Darwin's theories of human evolution. Unfortunately, it evolved into a troubling argument supporting scientific racism and sexism. Advocates contended that certain advanced human groups were naturally predisposed, based on historical adaptations, to specific levels of intelligence and health, but also as self-control patterns. Essentially, eugenics claimed that historical environmental influences shaped certain groups to inherently possess superior qualities, perpetuating scientifically discredited beliefs in racial and gender hierarchies.

 

  _{Source: https://knowgenetics.org/history-of-eugenics/}

Race & Intelligence

Race & Intelligence

Eugenics was the starting point of research considering race as a predictor of intelligence. Another turning point was the publication of the Bell Curve (Hernstein & Murray, 1994).

The key themes discussed in this book were:

–The cognitive elite

–Socioeconomic status and IQ

–The relationship between intelligence and race

–Implications for social policy

There was widespread criticism for the themes proposed by this book as they were based on controversial assumptions.

Resources:

Chitty, C. (2007). Eugenics, race and intelligence in education. Bloomsbury Publishing.

Herrnstein, R. J., & Murray, C. (2010). The bell curve: Intelligence and class structure in American life. Simon and Schuster.

Jackson Jr, J. P., & Winston, A. S. (2021). The mythical taboo on race and intelligence. Review of General Psychology, 25(1), 3-26.

Wober, M. (1971). Race and intelligence. Transition, (40), 17-26.

https://youtu.be/d_tA8Skfh3w?si=QTD1NFugDLStriRp

Mid-20th Century

• The civil rights movement in the United States challenges the legal and social structures of racism, leading to landmark legislation such as the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. These laws outlaw discrimination and promote equal opportunity for all Americans, regardless of race.

• Social psychologists begin to study the psychological effects of racism, exploring how it can impact individuals and communities. This research reveals the damaging effects of racism on self-esteem, mental health, and physical health.

• Cognitive psychologists investigate the role of implicit biases in racism, demonstrating how unconscious prejudices can influence our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. This research helps to explain why racism can persist even in societies that explicitly condemn it.

Late 20th and Early 21st Centuries

• Critical race theory emerges as a framework for examining the relationship between race and power. This theory challenges the traditional view of racism as an individual prejudice and instead emphasizes the systemic nature of racism, arguing that it is embedded in the structures and institutions of society.

• Multicultural psychology develops as a field of study dedicated to understanding the psychological experiences of people from diverse cultural backgrounds. This field explores the impact of racism on individuals from marginalized groups and contributes to the development of culturally sensitive interventions.

• The field of neuroscience begins to shed light on the biological underpinnings of racism, revealing the role of the brain in processing and responding to racial stimuli. This research suggests that racism may have a neurological basis, which could have implications for developing anti-racism

Black Psychology

In response to the underrepresentation of Black people in mainstream and Western psychology, Black psychology emerged to provide a comprehensive understanding and promote the mental health of black individuals.

Black Psychology recognises how historical events such as slavery, segregation, colonisation and ongoing systemic racism shape the psychological well-being of Black individuals.

Key figures:

Francis Cecil Sumner – The Father of Black Psychology

Sumner was the first black American to achieve a PhD in psychology. He aimed to reduce Eurocentric methods in psychology and reduce racial biases in psychological interventions.

Kenneth Clark and Mamie Phipps Clark

Clark was a social psychologist, famously known for her and her husband’s Bobo Doll Experiment. Clark and Clark focused on the development of self-consciousness in black preschool children. Their Bobo Doll Tests highlighted the negative self-esteem and identity development of black children, which was crucial in Brown v Board Supreme Court case.

Na’im Akbar

A clinical psychologist well known for his Afrocentric approach to psychology. Dr Akbar is well known for his research on the impact of Eurocentric education on black self-perception and the broken psychological state of black people. Akbar, firmly believes that for black individuals living in America, power is hard for them to obtain, as a result of the psychological damages caused by systemic racism.

Inez Beverly Prosser

Prosser's research was centred on a topic that might initially appear controversial: the advocacy for segregated schools. Her focus was on investigating the notion that black children might experience better outcomes in schools where they are surrounded by fellow black students and teachers. Her findings were focused on the idea that black children in these segregated environments exhibited greater satisfaction and a sense of security in their social interactions. In contrast, she observed that black children in integrated schools were less content and secure, leading to a higher likelihood of early departure from the educational system.

Olivia Hooker

As a survivor of the Tulsa Race Massacre, Hooker lived on to specialise in neurodiversity. Her focus was on working with individuals with disabilities, studying and researching the behaviour of preschool children within this context.

This article describes the rich history of African American psychology:

Holliday, (2009). The history and visions of African American psychology: Multiple pathways to place, space, and authority.Link opens in a new window

Rowe, (2013). Black psychology and the African psychology institute.Link opens in a new window