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Title: How Do Second-Language Learners Navigate Linguistic Barriers to Academic Success?

Abstract: Immigrant children must rapidly develop their second language (L2) skills to access the curriculum and succeed academically. Yet, we still know surprisingly little about their outcomes once they transition into higher education. Previous research on second-language learners in higher education has shown that L2 proficiency at entry is a key determinant of academic success and subsequent language development. Building on these findings, we examined Russian-speaking learners of Estonian who completed their primary and secondary education in either Russian-medium or Estonian-medium schools. Despite their different schooling backgrounds, the two cohorts showed no significant differences in language proficiency or self-reported GPA at university. However, we found that their language skills in Estonian are still developing, and the strongest predictors of L2 proficiency were second-language use in demanding contexts and the importance given to figurative language use. These findings highlight the continued need for targeted language support at university, even for students who appear academically successful.