Aside from establishing trust and rapport prior to data collection, it is also important to offer support with the technology, platform or app that will be used to collect the data. This helps to ensure that participants have access to and are able to use the technology as required (Carter et al., 2021a; Carter et al., 2021b). This preparation might take the form of a test video call or online chat to point out or demonstrate the technology’s features (e.g. how to send researcher private message), or provision of the technology itself. It is important that participants are made aware of how much personal information is visible to the researcher, and support offered to set up a virtual background if needed (Carter et al., 2021c). For participants in group data collection, support may be needed to set up alias identities and accounts to facilitate privacy and ensure personal accounts are not made available to other participants (Douglas et al., 2021). For participants with specific access or support needs, technology set up meetings are particularly important. Archibald et al. (2019) noted that 88% of their 16 participants (nurses, being interviewed by Zoom) experienced some sort of challenge in joining their remote interview on the day of data collection. These challenges included issues with bandwidth, webcam/microphone malfunction, low device battery and outdated hardware. While some of this technological set-up will invariably also take place at the start of the data collection event, it can help to address some of the ‘preventable’ technological challenges, such as outdated or incompatible software, establish rapport and protect the data collection time when done in advance. As noted by Gray et al (2020), having a ‘back up plan’ (e.g. switching to telephone) (Gray et al, 2020: 1296), that is shared with participants in advance, in case of technology failure can help prevent loss of data or re-arrangement of the data collection event.

In line with the rise in remote qualitative research, there has been an attendant rise in the taking of ‘e-consent’, i.e. consent taken from participants electronically, whether through the use of information sheets and consent forms sent through document transfer systems, webpages or through platforms such as REDCap. Other forms of remote consent include verbal consent via telephone or videoconferencing platforms, however, these forms of consent are typically accompanied by supporting consent documents. Consent forms can also be completed electronically, but face-to-face, e.g. a participant adding a signature to an electronic form displayed on a tablet. The participant’s technological proficiency needs to be taken into account, and they may need support with adding an electronic signature. Visually impaired participants, for example, may need the consent form read to them and verbal consent recorded (Engward et al., 2022).

Taking e-consent has benefits, including environmental benefits (reduced need for paper, printing, physical storage and methods for safe disposal of hard copies), and electronic consent forms and information sheets can have audio visual enhancements and hyperlinks where additional information can be provided to enhance understanding (Tait & Voepel-Lewis, 2015). The screen sharing option for video-conferencing technologies can also support researchers to go through the form with participants in real time either before or during the data collection event. For marginalised/stigmatised groups or those associated with illegal activities, the processes around informed consent may require additional thought. For these groups, needing to sign a consent form can, in itself, be a barrier for participation, and consultation with research ethics committees to devise alternative methods to document consent may be indicated (Abrams et al., 2020). The use of video to accompany information sheets and consent forms can also make the consent process more inclusive, supporting the participants with additional needs, as well as standardising the consent process (Sonne et al., 2013). However, it is important that videos are not used as an alternative to contact with the research team to discuss study procedures and the implications of participation. Welch et al. (2016) have developed the term ‘teleconsent’ to describe a method whereby researchers and would-be participants meet on a videoconferencing platform in order for the researcher to guide them through the consent form in real time, addressing any questions or clarifications as they arise. Despite these possibilities, it has been suggested that use of paper copies should not be entirely abandoned (Skelton et al., 2020). Some participants prefer or need hard copies, and this should be accommodated as far as possible. Hard copies can be sent through the post with stamped addressed envelopes for returns.

Key considerations for researchers taking consent remotely:

1. Have enough resources been factored into the research to allow for the development of consent materials, as well as printing/postage costs?
2. If your participant group is adolescents, how/ will it be possible to confirm the age of the participant (and consequently whether parental consent is required)?
3. Will a typed signature be accepted, or are photo signatures or wet ink signatures required by ethics boards?
4. How can consent forms be securely transferred between researchers and participants in line with GDPR regulation?
5. For videoconferencing platforms- does the consent form specify whether audio alone or audio visual is being recorded? It is critically important to make it clear to participants when the data collection is starting, and what ‘counts’ as data, a process that can be obscured by use of remote methods (Marlowe and Allen, 2022; Boland et al., 2022). For example, whether this includes visual data from the background or visible environment of the participant (source: consensus conference), whether interruptions from other people in the participant’s environment are noted, whether use of emojis, reactions and GIFs (source: consensus conference) are treated as data, and also whether any text posted in the chat function of a videoconferencing platform will be included alongside a transcript.
6. How can the ‘just tick yes’ phenomenon (Rowan et al., 2017) be mitigated when consent forms are completed without researcher presence?
7. Remote methods, in particular remote focus groups, can provide participants with a greater number of opportunities to break the confidentiality of others. Given this context, it is important that all participants understand that recordings, photography, or screenshots are not permitted, but also the limitations of confidentiality in focus group settings (Lobe et al., 2020).

Preparation for data collection is critical, particularly when using remote methods. Supporting participants to use the technology that will be used is particularly important, as not being able to navigate the platform can have significant negative impacts on the participant’s experience of research participation and can result in lack of engagement or drop out. Some participants will need more support than others, and it is important that time to explore the technology with the participant is allowed for within the research timeline.

For valid consent, it is important that participants have considered the potential impacts of their participation, where they will participate, how and how their data will be handled after collection. Consent, and in particular, clarification regarding what will be ‘counted’ as data and what will not, is especially important in remote methods. Extraneous, or ‘silent’ data can take many forms (e.g. backgrounds in videoconferencing, emojis, profile pictures on WhatsApp accounts), and those less familiar with the technology are more likely than those proficient with it to share more of this type of data than they may have intended. MORE INFORMATION Drawing participants’ attention to the types of data that will be visible when using the technology is essential.

Developing robust procedures for documenting consent, and also re-iterating it as appropriate, are critical. Remote consent needs to include methods for securely transferring sensitive information, which may include encryption and password protection of associated files and secure file transfer.

1. 1. 1. How well do you understand the access needs of your participants?
      2. How important are pre-data collection activities for the population being studied? How can they be used to support data collection itself, without over burdening participants? Are there sufficient resources allocated to the research to allow for these activities?
      3. Will your chosen digital communication channel(s) allow for your chosen consent processes and the requirements of ethics approvals?