Please reply to this thread with a brief summary/key points of at least one
text from the general reading. When reading whole books /edited collections,
look at the Introduction and, from this, identify at least one other chapter
that will be useful for the discussion.
Deviance A
Deviance A
Defining Deviance
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/Oldridge, D. (2005) Werewolves and flying witches. In: Strange histories: the trial of the pig, the walking dead, and other matters of fact from the medieval and Renaissance worlds. London: Routledge, Ch.6, pp.96-111/ * Modern interpretation of Werewolves is comical, with an understanding that they are a myth and expectation that everyone knows this. The werewolf unlocks primal instincts within us all, and are often portrayed in a sympathetic light. * In medieval and renaissance Europe, werewolves were a topic for serious debate and were widely believed in. They were seen as evil murderers, and associated to magic and the Devil. * By the eighteenth century, the then-myth of werewolves were explained by the superstitiousness of the uneducated. However there were also medical explanations, such as schizophrenia and the inner bestiality that remained hidden inside ‘normal’ people. Werewolves were largely seen as a delusion of mentally ill people. * By the early 1800s in England, official prosecutions against ‘werewolves’ were long gone, however in folklore in rural communities, the werewolf remained. * However the ‘rationality’ portrayed by the people that no longer believed in werewolves at this time was not as we expect. Such beliefs that made werewolves impossible to them also made them sure that witches could fly. * In the bible there is a section on a person transforming into an animal, so according to the book of Daniel, God can transform people. However it was believed that Satan was responsible for lycanthropy, although few believed that he could as this would put his power close to God’s. There was much debate on such matters, especially on the impact of transformation upon the soul and whether the soul could survive. * For Renaissance thinkers there was the possibility of belief that the Devil was so powerful that the transformation was in fact the deceiving of the senses of both ‘witch’ and victim. This is an alternative to either believing in the mental illness of the ‘werewolf’ or believing in the transformation. * Men such as James VI thought werewolves were myths but that witches were real. Witches were able to ‘spirit travel’ and had made a pact with the Devil against God. However much debate took place and the official consensus became that witches had to fly to Sabbath physically, although now most believe that the Sabbath was a festival made up out of fear and that no such things occurred. * It was believed by many that witches potions had no power once their creator was detained. It could be seen that any belief in witches potions was caused by the placebo effect. Much of the theory around witches was based around their being able to use magic to dupe victims and husbands into believing that they were normal, did not go out to Sabbath at night, and cast spells.0 likes
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Thanks for getting this started Dan - great to see you paying attention to changes over time.0 likes
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/Mary Douglas, 'Witchcraft and Leprosy: Two Strategies of Exclusion', Man, 26 (1991), pp.723-36/ Douglas' article focuses upon the similarities between accusations of witchcraft and cases of leprosy with particular reference to the exclusion which often followed. By comparing the two, she brings up a number of important points about witchcraft accusations, leprosy, and the social importance of excluding those accused: * Both witches and lepers were viewed with high amounts of suspicion because of their percieved intent to cause harm, either by maleficia or the spreading of infection. The fact that they could undertake these acts without being seen led to higher levels of paranoia and an increasing willingness to accuse and take action within communities. * A number of anthropological studies into witchcraft accusations in Africa have identified three different purposes for accusations; to destabilise power, control the disenfranchised majority, or continue to marginalise the outsiders of society. * These apply to both leprosy and witchcraft, although there is a clearer chronological progression in the purpose of leprosy diagnosis. Whilst it existed before the 12th Century, it was not viewed as infectious, and diagnosis only resulted in a 'ritual' death, where civic rights were taken away. Following the expansion of the peasant population, including an increase in beggars and vagabonds within towns, it became a far more commonly diagnosed illness and was seen as highly infectious, with leprosariums being set up to house those with the disease. * This change in leprosy treatment has been seen as an attempt to use the illness to control the newly free poor population, as it allowed for them to be segregated in all areas of life, including Church services and burial. This point is only further emphasised by the fact that very few bodies have been found with signs of leprosy, and many more have been found with signs of far more minor illnesses, which had been wrongly diagnosed as leprosy. * Whilst witchcraft was treated with similar suspicion over a wide area, leprosy was treated differently between the West and East. Whilst lepers were segregated and stripped of rights in Western Christendom, lepers were protected in Jerusalem, and a leper was even crowned King. Leprosy was also far better diagnosed in the East, and was recognised in a way very similar to modern diagnosis and observations. * In the West, leprosy was equated with immorality due to the belief, following its increase in the 12th Century, that it was spread by sexual practice. This meant that a leprosy diagnosis was very similar to a witchcraft accusation, as it posed similar questions of morality and behavior. This meant that both lepers and witches were viewed as sinners, excluding them further from their own communities.0 likes
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J.A. Sharpe, Witches and Persecuting Societies Sharpe puts across the argument that when discussing 'persecuting societies' one must take into account the variation in regional and local differences. Societies took different approaches; some local governments, who had to enforce such policies, had little interest in persecution whilst others took the matter extremely seriously. It is thus not easy to form a conclusive overview of what a 'persecuting society' even is. * Sharpe reviews the works of several historians, notably R.I Moore, who argues that the witchcraft craze did not emerge overnight but is rather part of a long-history of scapegoating and persecution. He sees the growth of heresy hunting in the eleventh and twelfth centuries as part of the development of a persecuting society and highlights the fact that key elements are often shared between groups of deviants. Moore argues that 'socially sanctioned violence' was already common and by the 15th century 'persecution was habitual.' * Whilst witch-hunting is often seen as being imposed as the result of 'a plot by lawyers and clerics' and 'a side effect of a patriarchal society', Sharpe presents evidence of it not merely being imposed from above. He mentions the parish tensions and disputes among villagers as well as the common fear of witchcraft held by peasants. * The arrival of 'Christianisation', the imposition of religious conformity and the alliance between the Church and the state all suggest a reason why the upper echelons of society became more interested in witch-hunting. However, it is unlikely that this would have been such a pressing issue for villagers etc. * Society (if society even existed at this point) was much too complex and divided, it would need the agreement of a large and incredibly diverse selection of groups on persecution for it to be seen as the will of 'society.' There is also the issue of to what extent would some of these groups would agree with the ideas of the elites.0 likes
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J. Dillinger, ‘Terrorists and Witches: Popular Ideas of Evil in the Early Modern Period’, History of European Ideas, 30 (2004), 167-82 * Dillinger traces the origins of Evil in early modern society, he focuses on two groups: witches an d arsonists. He calls the arsonists 'terrorists' as he believes that the definition of a terrorists can also apply to that of the early modern arsonist. * Dillinger traces the origins of Evil in early modern society starting with the persecution of the Jewish people and other heretics. This, he argues, set up the idea that Evil could originate from secret communities and from conspiracies plotted by marginal and hated groups. * He then states that the experience of the Black Death is key to how people in the early modern period thought of Evil. Dillinger argues that the pandemic nature of the Black Death showed Europeans that Evil was possible and also gave them ideas to how it could be so effective at spreading. * In addition to this the experiences of uncertainty and danger helped to make people more paranoid and more likely to believe that Evil was at work, either through witches or terrorist-arsonists. Crises as well made people more fearful causing yet more conspiracies about Evil persons and groups. * The opposition to these groups was total as Dillinger states that early modern society thought that Evil must be eradicated and therefore sentences were often harsh. However he also states that as states started forming and centralising power, local and personal disputes that often ended in accusations of Evil declining. Eventually being effectively removed by the European Enlightenment. * Finally Dillinger attempts to link such ideas about Evil to the contemporary world, saying that extremism is thought of as a virus and terrorism a pandemic. Adding that today, as in the early modern period, reactions against terrorism are stated in terms of non-negotiation and eradication. In much the same as witches and terrorist-arsonists were thought of in the Early Modern period.0 likes
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'The Formations of a Persecuting Society' Ed Stevenette The book anlyses the persecution of 'deviants' or simply criminals between 950-1250. It acknowledges the growing use of a persecuting culture. Focused in particular on the chapter named 'classification' * Emphasis of the 'striking parrallels between the persecution of Jews, Lepers'. * The first reading emphasises the lack of an intrinsic relationship between all deviants, however this chapter focuses on how they were all treated the same in many ways * This is reflective of more archaic research which proposes the concept of criminals and deviants and biologically deviant. * Focus on the ways in which these characters were ostracised from society * For example, exclusion from society 'extended to civil rights denying access to public courts and office, security of property during life and disposal of it after death' * Emphasises this period being critical for the ascension of persecution, particuarly towards the marginalised in society, or 'deviants' * Evidence within the book of marginalised groups being persecuted in the same ways, despite having contrastingly different social circumstances, and differing beliefs * e.g. Both Jews and Prostitutes were forbidden to handle goods on display for sale. Couldn't find his critical argument within the chapter, but more of a central theme confronted is the idea of persecution massively increasing during the period, and including a wide range of groups. 'Deviance' is not explicity referenced however.0 likes
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R. I. Moore, /The Formation of a Persecuting Society: power and deviance in Western Europe/ /950-1250/ (Basil Blackwell, 2000) p. 6-65 Moore's chapter focuses on the main reasons that caused the 'persecuting society' such as the changes in the Church and Medieval Europe that occurred. The 'deviance' looked at in Moore's chapter is heresy: both of non-Christian religions and that which occurred within the Christian faith. He also looks at the position and treatment of lepers in society and how the disease of leprosy was interpreted by medieval Christendom. * The reorganisation of the Church during the Fourth Lateran Council created 'a working definition of a Christian community' by outlining the duties of a Christian citizen which included: penance, confession and Eucharist once a year. This re-organisation of Christian canon consolidated and galvanised a desire from the Church to protect itself against perceived enemies. * While there were precedents for dealing with heresy, Moore argues that the Councils were the 'first truly European-wide measure against heretics' and there was active encouragement in the persecution of heresy. E.g. Innocent III declared heresy to be a crime equal to treason. * Church was very threatened by the potential for disunity or disloyalty. Differences in belief were not just religious threats but intellectual too. In the end, correct belief was a condition of membership of civilised Christian society. Even the criticism of corrupt clergy was threatening as it challenged the hierarchy and structure of the church * When non-Christians were not persecuted with violence, they were often subject to heavy exploitation from clerical and secular powers. E.g. Jews were not allowed to own land or public office and were often expelled from the countries in which they settled if they were perceived as too great a threat. * Moore also mentions lepers as a class segregated from 'civilised society' and they were often treated similar to non-Christian outcasts in the sense that they were not allowed property or legal rights. However, the treatment of lepers was more extreme as they were considered effectively dead once they were discovered to have the disease. However, there is also evidence that lepers were viewed as people granted suffering in their mortal lives so they may achieve salvation quicker. Heresy was also a spectacle and a caution against wrong doing; often associated with sexual misconduct. * With other religions, Christianity took measures to ensure that they could not hold positions of power over people in the Christian faith. These rules were not necessarliy enforced however, for example, Jews supposedly enjoyed imperial protection in the court of Charlemagne. Jewish communities were spread around Europe throughout the Middle Ages and into the early modern period. * However, there was targeted aggression against Jews during the Crusades which led to a number of massacres, with one confirmed at Rouen. Jews were forced to convert or die.0 likes
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/Mary Douglas, 'Witchcraft and Leprosy: Two Strategies of Exclusion', Man, 26 (1991), pp 723-36/ Just to expand on what Daniel already wrote (the text is only 15 pages long, so there's not much to add and I will probably repeat his points) - Douglas identifies various similarities between cases witchcraft and cases of leprosy because they are spreading “insidious harm” (harm that can't be seen or prevented from an observer point of view) - “To cause a person's civil claims to be rejected, libel on its own is not enough, it has to be supported by an accusation of causing damage so that the victim can be classed as a public nuisance” - By comparing witchcraft and leprosy, Douglas reveals that these were being used as resource for maintaining particular cultural regimes. Or as Douglas writes in her conclusion: 'In the first case the arrow points up, against the office holders attempting to abuse their privileges. In the second case it points down, against the disfranchised majority. In the last case it points outwards, against the outsiders who threaten the tight, beleaguered community.' - This is due to the fact that the libels of witchcraft and leprosy are very similar - '...the attribution of a hidden power to hurt is a weapon of attack...', which creates panic amongst communities - Douglas also says that for an accusation to be successful it should be directed against victims already hated by the populace, making the accused defamed in the long term, leading to marginalization and finally to inculpation0 likes
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Week 5 Cathars, Dan/The Catholics, the Cathars, and the Concept of Infinity in the Thirteenth Century/, Anne A. Davenport, Isis, Vol. 88, No. 2 (Jun., 1997), pp. 263-295 • The Cathars denied that God was anywhere in material world • The Cathars could not believe God created a world with such suffering, and so split him into the God of ‘Light’ (‘from whom the spiritual realm radiates eternally’) and the God of ‘Darkness’ (‘responsible for material creation and time’) • The Cathars actively attempted to improve their education and skill, sending students to Paris to study a variety of things, in order to prove themselves correct against the Catholic church • The Cathars denied free will and transubstantiation • In ever-intensifying debates between Cathar and Catholic scholars, both took to more rational trains of thought, and sought to out-rationalise the other o Alexander Nequam, a catholic scholar, stated, ‘Since indeed it seems that rational arguments convince our opponents better than [scriptural] authority, we will not be loath to decapitate Goliath with his own sword.’ – he believes that since God is immense, their being two deities (dualism) is impossible • By the mid 1240s, theological rivalry had departed and Catholic repression was constant. • Later on, thinkers such as Richard Fishacre appeared. This was more general, less pointed towards heretics, but meant to bolster Catholic doctrine as a whole. Such arguments were more general, and argue for Genesis’s creator God, to bolster the Catholic version of biblic Scripture, than to play on the Cathar’s playing field in regards to definitions.0 likes