Glossary
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A
- Abstracts
An abstract is a short summary of an article, chapter or book. Abstracts often cover what the article, chapter or book is about, the methods used and an indication of the findings. Readers can use this to decide whether to read the full source.
- Academic integrity
Academic integrity means acting honestly, fairly, and responsibly within academic work. This includes acknowledging the sources of any information used, following assessment requirements, and representing your own work accurately. When searching for information, academic integrity means recording and acknowledging sources appropriately, respecting copyright and licensing conditions, and following any requirements or restrictions regarding the use of AI tools.
Read more about academic integrity here: Understanding Academic Integrity
- Academic Library
Academic libraries are those that belong to institutions of higher education. The mission of academic libraries is to support the educational and research activities of their parent institution through the provision of collections, services and user education. Providing support for teaching, learning and research is the focus of academic libraries.
Curzon, S. and Quinonez-Skinner, J. (2017), Academic libraries, In: McDonald, J. D. and Levine-Clark, M. (eds.) (2017) Encyclopedia of Library and Information Studies, Fourth ed. CRC Press. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1081/E-ELIS4- Academic search tools
Academic search tools are online databases of published academic work, such as articles or books. Searching them usually provides either citations or links to the full text for each item. Library Search, the university’s online catalogue, is an example. More examples can be found through the databases page or the subject guide for your department.
- Alternative licencing
Alternative licencing refers to licensing approaches which allow copyright holders to give specific permissions to use, share, adapt, or redistribute their work while retaining some rights. These licences provide an alternative to reserving all rights under standard copyright restrictions. See also: creative commons.
- Anonymisation (of data)
Data anonymisation is the process of removing or altering information that could identify an individual, either directly or indirectly, so that they can no longer be recognized from the data. Anonymisation helps protect privacy and is often required when working with sensitive or personal data in research. For example, participant names might be replaced with codes, and details such as addresses, student numbers, and other identifying characteristics could be removed before sharing or analysing research data.
Authority is typically understood as the recognized legitimacy, credibility, or power of an author, document, or source to be accepted as trustworthy and influential within a particular community or context, often because it conforms to accepted norms of qualification, measurement or production. For an author, authority could be linked expertise, affiliation with a learned institution, or practical or lived experience. In a document, authority will be rooted in provenance (where and how it originated), or publication and editorial processes for example.
B
- Bias
Cambridge Dictionary defines this as "the action of support or opposing a particular person or things in an unfair way, because of allowing personal opinions to influence your judgement" or "the fact of a collection of data containing more information that supports a particular opinion than you would expect to find if the collection had been made by chance" Cambridge Dictionary (2026) Bias. Available at: https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/bias(Accessed: 18 September 2026)
- Boolean operators
Boolean operators are used to combine keywords within a search query. They tell the search engine or database how to limit or broaden your results. The main operators are:
- AND, which narrows a search by requiring results to contain both terms. For example, a search for climate AND migration would only return results which contain both the words ‘climate’ and ‘migration’.
- OR, which returns results which contain either term. For example, a search for cars OR vans would return results which contains either ‘cars’ or ‘vans’.
- NOT, which excludes results. In the search ford NOT car, for example, results containing the word ‘car’ would be excluded.
Using Boolean operators can help to make your search more precise. You will often need to enter the operators in capital letters, depending on the search tool.
C
- Citation
A citation is a brief reference to a source within a piece of academic work. It identifies where ideas, information, and quotations came from, usually by referring to a corresponding full reference in the bibliography or reference list. Citations help readers to locate the sources used and distinguish your own ideas from those drawn from other people’s work. The information included in the citation and the way it is formatted depend on the referencing style being used.
- Citation database
Citation databases provide a way of connecting research (mostly journal articles) through the citations used. They allow a researcher to follow the references and citations within articles to reveal the sources used in any research, or show further sources that cite a relevant article. They create a network of authors and research from a single article based on citations and in doing so, can help trace the development of an idea, discover related research, and identify influential publications. Example are Web of Science and Scopus.
- Citation searching
Citation searching is a way of finding relevant academic sources by examining the references and citations connected to a useful publication.
- Backward citation searching involves looking at the sources cited in a publication’s reference list or bibliography.
- Forward citation searching involves finding later publications that cite that publication.
Citation searching can help you trace the development of an idea, discover related research, and identify influential publications. Look for the ‘citations’ or ‘cited by’ buttons in databases such as Web of Science and Scopus.
Find more information: Search and explore topic guide.
- Common knowledge
Common knowledge is knowledge that is widely held within a particular subject area or wider community, and that can usually be found in a wide range of reliable sources. This does not usually require citation. What counts as common knowledge can vary between disciplines and audiences. If information is not widely known, is open to debate, or comes from a specific source, cite it. When in doubt, provide a citation.
Read more here.
- Controlled handling
The careful management of data to ensure that only authorised people can access, use, share, or modify it. Controlled handling is especially important when working with sensitive or personal data and may involve using secure storage, restricting access, encrypting files, and following institutional or legal requirements.
- Controlled vocabulary
Controlled vocabulary is a standardised set of terms used by a database to describe the topics covered by its resources. Using these terms can help you find relevant results even when authors use different words or phrases to refer to the same concept.
For example, Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) is the controlled vocabulary used to index articles in Medline and PubMed. A MeSH Heading, such as Heart Failure, brings together articles about that topic, including articles that use related terms such as cardiac failure in their titles or abstract.
See the Medline tutorial course for more information.
Controlled vocabulary terms vary between databases and search tools, so you may need to identify and use the terms specific to the database you are searching. You can often combine controlled vocabulary with keyword searching.
- Copyright
Copyright is a legal protection which applies to creative and intellectual works such as text, images, music, film, software, and other research materials. It gives the copyright owner rights to control how the work is copied, shared, adapted, performed, or made available to others. When using someone else’s material, check whether permission is needed, whether an exception or license applies, and how the material should be attributed. Attribution alone does not necessarily give permission to reuse copyrighted material.
See the copyright guide for more information.
- Creative commons
Creative commons licences allow copyright holders to set conditions for reuse, such as requiring attribution, restricting commercial use, or requiring adaptations to be shared under the same license. Check the terms of a license before reusing material and provide the required attribution.
D
- Data
Data is a collection of values that convey information that may be further interpreted formally. It is collected using techniques such as measurement, observation, query, or analysis, and is typically represented as numbers or characters that may be further processed. In some fields, data can also be generated, derived, simulated, or inferred rather than directly collected from observation or experience. Data can be seen as the smallest unit of factual information that can be used as a basis for calculation, reasoning, or discussion
- Databases
Online collections of academic books, journals, articles, and other research resources that can be searched systematically. To find links to databases specific to your discipline, look for your subject area on this Subject Support page, and click through to your department specific Library Guide. You can search all the databases available, from all disciplines, using the dedicated databases search here.
- Data loss
The accidental destruction or loss of digital information. Being a well-organised researcher means mitigating against the risks presented by data loss, such as by backing up work regularly. Read more about the University’s storage options and recommended file management practices here.
- Data management plan (DMP)
A document describing how research data will be collected, stored and secured throughout a project. Find out more about DMPs, find out about the DMPOnline platform you can access, and learn where to find support here.
- Disciplinary literature
Research and publications produced within a particular academic discipline. This includes books, journal articles, and other scholarly sources. Having a sound understanding of the literature in your discipline means understanding relevant scholarly debates and what the gaps might be in the literature. Planning your project to fill a gap in the existing work means you will create a project which will make a contribution to knowledge within that field.
- Document supply
Document supply is a service that helps you obtain resources (books, articles, etc.) not available through the library’s existing collections. This may include borrowing it from another library through interlibrary loan, requesting an item for purchase, or requesting a digital copy of part of a print resource.
At Warwick, the Get It For Me service covers these options. You can use it to request books or other resources that the library does not currently hold, or request that a section of a print book is scanned and sent to you. Availability, costs, and copyright restrictions may limit what the Library is able to provide.
E
- E-book features
These are the tools available for reading and exploring an electronic book. Depending on the platform, these include keyword searching within the book, navigation between chapters, changing the file format, text size, or layout, adding notes or highlights, and quoting or citation. These features can help you locate relevant information, record useful passages, and make an e-book easier to read. The features vary depending on the publisher’s platform.
- Exclusion criteria
Exclusion criteria are the predefined characteristics used to determine which sources, studies, or information will be excluded from a search or review. They help to focus the search on the most relevant evidence and ensure that the results serve the aims and scope of the research.
F
- FAIR data principles
The FAIR data principles are a set of rules which aim to make research data Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, and Reusable.
Read more here.
- Filters
Most academic search engines offer ways to filter the results of a search to reduce the total number of results. These normally include facets such as resource type (e.g. book, journal article, chapter, newspaper article, or report), discipline or subject term (e.g. medicine, music, or anthropology), publication date (select publication within a recent timeframe, such as the last year or two, or within a date range, such as January 1970 to December 1979), or language.
G
- GDPR (General Data Protection Regulation)
A legal framework which governs how personal data is collected, used, stored, and shared. Researchers must comply with GDPR when working with personal data, ensuring that data is handled lawfully, securely, and only for appropriate purposes.
- Grey literature
This refers to a range of information that is produced outside of commercial publishing. Some examples include government publications, theses and dissertations, working papers, company reports, pamphlets and patents.
H
- Hallucination
AI hallucinations are pieces of information generated by AI which are false, inaccurate, misleading, or unsupported, but presented as though they were factual. They often include invented sources, authors, quotations, citations, and details which do not appear in the authentic text. AI models tend to hallucinate because they predict statistically likely word sequences rather than retrieving verified facts. AI-generated content should, therefore, be checked against reliable sources; always check the original publication. Do not assume that a confident or detailed response is accurate.
Read more in the Artificial Intelligence topic guide.
I
- Information landscape
Information landscape is a metaphor describing the complex environment of information around us, similar to a physical landscape with peaks, plains, valleys, forests, paths, and hidden areas. It emphasises exploration, navigation, and the potential for both nurturing and misusing information. It is a dynamic, interconnected environment where knowledge is generated, shared, contested, and applied. Understanding it involves recognizing the diversity of sources, the accessibility of information, and the social and technological structures that shape how knowledge is perceived and acted upon.
K
- Keyword
Keywords are significant words or phrases which describe the main idea or topic you are searching for. Search tools use keywords to find resources with those words in their titles, abstracts, subject headings, or full text. If searching for resources about the impact of social media on student mental wellbeing, for example, keywords could include social media, students or student wellbeing, mental health, and social media. Keywords can be combined or adapted to broaden, narrow, and refine a search.
- Keywords
Important words or phrases that describe the main concepts of a research topic. Keywords are used to search the Library catalogue, academic databases, and other sources. Choosing appropriate keywords helps to retrieve relevant results. Recording your keywords and keyword combinations means you can reproduce your searches later. For example, for a project exploring social media and mental health, keywords could include: social media, mental health, wellbeing, adolescents, and online communities.
L
- Licensing conditions
The rules that specify how information, data, or other content can be accessed, used, shared, adapted, or reproduced. Licensing conditions may permit certain uses while restricting others, and researchers must follow these requirements when working with licenced materials. For example, a dataset license may allow data to be used for research and teaching but prohibit commercial use or redistribution to others. See also: terms of use.
M
- Media
Media generally refers to the technologies, channels, formats, and institutions used to create, store, communicate, and distribute information. It is the means through which information, knowledge, messages, and cultural content are produced, represented, transmitted, and received.
N
- Natural language
Natural language describes the ordinary, everyday language people use to communicate, rather than formal language or a specific set of formatted search terms. In the context of searching, some information retrieval tools (including AI) use natural language instead of keyword-based queries, which involves explaining what you want to find in a more conversational way. For example, instead of searching for something like “social media” AND (“mental health” OR wellbeing) AND students, you might ask ‘provide me with the ten most highly-cited sources on the effects of social media use on students’ mental health or wellbeing’.
- Non-academic sources
Sources that are not produced by academic researchers, for an academic audience, or by academic presses. Examples include news articles, websites, policy documents, industry reports, blogs and social media posts. Non-academic sources can be useful for research but should be evaluated rigorously for authority, quality, and relevance before use. See also: grey literature
O
- Obligations
Requirements or responsibilities that must be followed when using information, data and other research materials. Obligations are often set out in licences, terms of use, contracts, ethical agreements, or legal frameworks, and may relate to attribution, sharing, storage, or permitted uses.
- Open Access
Open access is a broad, international movement that aims for free, open, and permanent online access to scholarly outputs, such as publications, data, and educational resources. A publication or other output is open access if there are no financial, legal, or technical barriers to accessing it – that is, anyone can read, download, copy, distribute, print, and re-use it, in accordance with its license. Open access differs from the subscription model, in which scholarly output is available only to those with a subscription (usually via libraries).
Openaccess.nl (2026). What is open access? [online]. Available at: https://www.openaccess.nl/en/about-open-access/what-is-open-access
- Open research
Open research, also widely referred to as open science, relates to how research is performed and how knowledge is shared based on the principle that research should be as open as possible. It also enables research to take advantage of digital technology. Transparency, openness, verification and reproducibility are important features of research and innovation. Open research helps to support and uphold these features across the whole lifecycle of research – improving public value, research integrity, reuse and innovation. Open research also helps to support collaboration within and across disciplines. It is integral to a healthy research culture and environment. UK Research & Innovation (2026). Ensuring Open Research [online]. UKRI. Available at: https://www.ukri.org/what-we-do/supporting-healthy-research-and-innovation-culture/open-research/
P
- Peer review
A procedure where scholarly work is evaluated by experts of the same discipline against a set of criteria to ensure that it meets the standards necessary for publication. Peer review is widely accepted as the best method for research validation and ensuring quality publications. The peer-review process may be open, where both author and reviewer are known to each other, or it may be a blind process where the reviewer or the author is anonymized or both author name and reviewer name are hidden. Bullock, A., Chris Jennings, C. and Timbrell, N. (2019). Peer review. In: A Dictionary of Publishing. Oxford University Press. Available at: https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780191863592.001.0001/acref-9780191863592-e-178
- Peer reviews
Peer review is the process by which experts in a field assess research before it is published or accepted for presentation. Reviews may comment on the quality, originality, significance, methods, evidence, rigour and clarity of the work, and may recommend acceptance, revision and resubmission, or rejection. Different forms of peer review handle anonymity and openness differently:
- Single-anonymised review allow reviewers to know the author’s identity, but the author does not know the reviewers’ identities.
- Double-anonymised reviews allow neither author nor reviewer to know the other’s identity.
- Open peer review allows authors and reviewers to know each other’s identities, and review reports or responses may be published alongside accepted work.
- Post-publication peer review sees work reviewed after acceptance and publication.
Peer review is often perceived as the ‘gold standard’ marker of quality within academic publishing, but it does not guarantee that the work is accurate or free from error. The process and its rigour can vary between disciplines and individual publications. Many publications are retracted every year due to poor practice, plagiarism, or errors with the research. Read here for more information on retractions.
- Permissions
The specific actions that a licence allows a user to carry out when using data or other research materials. Permissions may include activities such as accessing, downloading, analysing, copying, adapting, sharing, or publishing data, subject to any conditions set by the licence.
- Plagiarism
Plagiarism is presenting someone else’s words, ideas, images, or other work, as your own without appropriate acknowledgment. This includes copying, closely paraphrasing, or translating material without a citation, as well as reusing your own work without disclosure where this is not permitted. Plagiarism is a serious academic offense that can result in severe consequences. Avoid plagiarism by keeping clear records of sources used, distinguishing clearly between your own ideas and those of others, and citing material appropriately.
Complete the Introduction to Referencing online course.
- Predatory publishing
Predatory publishing is a broad category which covers exploitative or deceptive publishing practices in which journals or publishers prioritise obtaining fees over providing reliable editorial and peer-review services. They may make misleading claims about their editorial board, peer review process, indexing, impact factors, or publication timescales. This is usually with the aim of encouraging researchers to pay fees to publish. Warning signs can include unsolicited invitations, unexplained fees, poor quality websites, false claims about indexing or editorial affiliations, and pressure to submit or pay quickly. No single indicator is conclusive, so assess a publishing opportunity using reliable guidance and check the journal’s policies, editorial team, and peer review process prior to submission.
- Preregistration
Preregistration is the practice of recording a research plan before collecting or analysing data. The plan may describe the research questions, methods, sample, and criteria for analysing results. Preregistration can increase transparency by distinguishing planned analyses from those developed during the research.
- Proximity searching
Proximity searching is a search technique that finds words or phrases appearing close to one another within a result, such as an article title, abstract, or full text. It can help identify results where the search terms are related, even when they do not appear as an exact phrase.
For example, a search for climate NEAR/5 migration may find results where ‘climate’ and ‘migration’ appear within five words of each other.
Proximity operators and their formats vary between search tools – check the database’s guidance before using them.
R
- Reading list
A list of resources provided by the module leader to support your learning on a particular course. Reading lists can be a useful starting point for research because they can be used to identify key authors, concepts, and debates before expanding a search further. Read more about reading lists here.
- Reading Lists
Created by your lecturers, your reading list links you to the key materials for each module - essential for understanding topics and preparing for lectures, seminars and assessments. It's your academic starting point - a solid foundation for building knowledge and confidence.
- Reference management software
Reference management software is software which allows you to manage and formulate references. Examples include EndNote and Zotero. These programmes allow you to download citations directly from academic databases and for you to group, label, and edit citations. They integrate with word processing software, meaning that it takes less time to create citations and bibliographies. This software can make errors, so it is essential that you understand the underlying principles of referencing and the requirements of the style.
Attend a reference management training session to learn more.
- Reproducibility
The ability for other researchers to understand, evaluate, and, where appropriate, repeat a research process using the same methods, data, and procedures. Reproducibility is supported by careful documentation, transparent decision-making, and well-organised research materials.
- Research Data Management
Research data management (RDM) refers to all the activities around organising, structuring, storing and caring for data produced as part of a research project: planning around research data, organising research data, preserving and sharing your research data. Find out more here: https://warwick.libguides.com/rdm/home
- Research ethics approval
A formal process that assesses whether a proposed research project plan meets ethical requirements before it begins. Research ethics approval is a requirement for projects which involve the NHS and social care, humans, animals, and the internet and social media, amongst other things. Read more here.
- Research metrics
The numbers and data analysis used in research assessment and research ranking, particularly at the individual level. Examples of ‘research metrics’ could include research grant income, citations, or journal impact factor (JIF) – the measure of the mean citations to recent articles in a given journal title.
- Research ranking
Research ranking refers to the evaluation and ranking of researchers, research outputs, journals, institutions, or departments according to measured indicators of research performance, quality, impact, or influence through the quantitative and/or qualitative criteria to determine their relative standing within a field or community. Whilst a range of criteria can be used, this is often centred on citations as an indicator of influence. See the Library's course: Understanding Research Metrics to find out more.
- Research strategy
In the context of information literacy and this framework, research strategy refers to the systematically planned methods and approaches used for finding relevant sources in the study of a given topic. A research strategy in this context can include what is being searched for, where to search for it, how it will be searched for and how the results will be managed or organised.
- Restrictions
The limitations or conditions set by a licence that specify what cannot be done with data or other research materials. Researcher must understand and follow these restrictions when accessing, using, sharing, or publishing licenced content.
S
- Scholarly sources
A scholarly source is the reliable text of a work, produced according to clearly delineated and consistently followed editorial principles. They faithfully reflect their own source material and make editorial decisions in the use of this material transparent, usually via extensive citations and referencing. Stark-Gendrano, R. (2010). Scholarly edition. In: The Oxford Companion to the Book. Oxford University Press. Available at: https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198606536.001.0001/acref-9780198606536-e-4347.
- SCONUL access
SCONUL access is a reciprocal scheme that allows (student and staff) members at participating university libraries to access study spaces and resources at other libraries which belong to the scheme. Some users may be able to borrow print books, depending on the rules of the library they visit. To use the scheme, apply through the SCONUL access website.
- Scope
The boundaries of a search, research question or project. Defining the scope involves deciding what will and will not be included, including the topics, time periods, locations, populations, or types of source. A clear scope keeps a project focused, manageable, and relevant. For example, a project on climate change policy might be scoped to only focus on UK government policy between 2010 and 2015.
- Search strategy
A planned approach to finding academic literature for a research project. It involves identifying key concepts, selecting appropriate keywords and search terms, choosing suitable information sources, and combining search techniques to locate relevant and reliable information efficiently.
- Sensitive or personal data
Information that identifies an individual, or which could be used to identify them when combined with other information. It could include names, contact details, student or staff identifiers, health information, demographic characteristics, or any other data that could reveal someone’s identity or personal circumstances. Researchers must take appropriate steps to protect sensitive or personal data throughout the research process, particularly when storing, sharing, or publishing research materials.
- Systematic searching
A structured approach to literature searching which uses clear search terms, multiple sources, and documented search strategies to comprehensively locate relevant literature.
T
- Terms of use
The conditions set by a database, website, or service provider that explains how its content may be accessed, downloaded, shared, or used. Compliance with these terms is essential to ensure the legal and ethical use of texts, data, and other material, particularly when downloading large amounts, reusing data, images, or text, or sharing material with others. See the Library e-resource terms of use here.
- Transparency
The practice of clearly documenting and explaining research decisions, methods, and processes, so that others can understand how the research was conducted.
- Truncation
Truncation is a search technique which uses a symbol, normally an asterisk (*), to replace the end of a word. This allows a search tool to find different word endings and related forms. For example, searching educat* would return results containing ‘educate’, ‘education’, ‘educational’ and ‘educator’.
Truncation can broaden a search, but the symbol and rules used cary between search tools. Check the tool’s guidance before use.
More info: Step 4 - Use Advanced Search Techniques