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Deviance A

Deviance A Book Review - Werewolves and the Possessed

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  1. Please reply to this thread with your review of a relevant article/text. If you have problems using the forum, please send your review to me. 

     
  2. C.W. Garrett, ‘Witches, Werewolves and Henri Boguet’, Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Western Society for French History, 4 (1976), 126-34.
    Main Argument and Structure: Witchcraft was endemic - panics and organised hunts never lasted for more than a few years and were confined to one region or locality.
    Witchcraft crazes were caused by the prevalence of demonology in society.
    Structure: The article itself is something of a book review, heavily relying on Bouget’s own work to discuss his life in Saint-Claude (as would be expected.) He draws his examples from Bouget and supports these with the works of prominent historians such as E. William Monter and Carlo Ginzburg.
    Who was Henri Bouget?
    Henri Bouget published one of the most influential demonologies, Discoure des Sorciere in 1602. Bouget claimed that the book could serve as a guide for judges; it was also quite short and readable.
    Bouget – little is known about him. He was born in the mid-16th century and studied law. He was named as chief judge in Saint-Claude. His arrival coincided with a programme of vigorous religious reform. Saint-Claude housed a shrine to the saint and was frequently used to cure victims of demonic possession.
    Wrote his demonology with little experience of witch trials – from 1598-1600 he tried 16 witches, more than half of the total he interrogated throughout his entire career.
    Historiography: increasing amount of historiography in the 1960s and 1970s. They have completely changed the way we understand witchcraft. French Historians normally dismissed outbreaks of possession as being due to sexually repressed nuns.
    Sources:
    Primary Sources and examples from the time – Loyse Maillat in 1598 began to crawl on all fours and twist her mouth strangely. She was taken by her parents to be exorcised and was said to have been possessed by five devils. She claimed a vagabond and beggar from their neighbourhood who had spent to night at her house had possessed her. He did so by forcing her to eat a dirty piece of bread.
    ‘Possession was real, but the apparent transformation of a man into a beast was impossible and merely a devilish illusion.’ 128
    The 16 people Bouget tried for witchcraft between 1598 and 1600 were all part of one group, all accusing each other. After this, there are no records of any witch trials for the next seven years. Shows that it was a phenomenon that came in crazes – which fits with much of the other historiography.
    Aims of the Article:
    Aimed to find the connection between witchcraft and popular religion – There was a clear link between the presence of the shrine and the incidents of possession but Garrett admits the links are somewhat tenuous. I would probably agree with Natalie Zemon Davis who says he is being too harsh on himself and that actually the link is quite clear and useful to historians.
    He also wished to raise questions about why possession was more prominent in certain regions, and why the possessed tended to be women. He seems to answer the region question, suggesting that it is due to the relics and notes that the majority of witches and the possessed are either women or children but doesn’t really give an opinion as to why this was.

    Commentary on the article by Natalie Zemon Davis: She notes that most of the accused are single women or widows, they are elderly and living apart from the community.
    Zemon Davis disagrees that Garrett has failed to find links between witchcraft and popular religion as the saint’s relics featured heavily in the cases.

     
  3. Penny Roberts manages to convey an important message throughout her essay, through a well-structured argument that endears itself to the reader. Roberts looks into the ‘Huguenot problem’ in sixteenth century France, examining the conspiracy theories that were endemic upon these people whom suffered from scapegoating at this time of religious instability and war. Roberts notes that marginal groups may become the target of conspiracy theories for any kind of difference, and that rumours such as the intention to kidnap King Charles IX helped propagate hatred and thus helped lead to religious war and events such as the St Bartholomew’s Day massacre of Huguenots in 1572. The perceived threat of the Huguenots remains central within this essay, and Roberts is quick to dispel many conspiracy theories, arguing that the Huguenots were often persecuted even when others’ were to blame for misfortune, and that the Huguenots in fact tended to fail or simply did not have the strength to commit to forceful conspiracies, instead relying on influence to achieve anything. Roberts tends to focus on the fact that the Huguenots were not traitors to anything but Catholicism, but stresses that this religious difference alone can be perceived as everything, and as such they were often feared as conspirators against king and country long after the sixteenth century. The arguments within the essay are well-supported, however Roberts is slow to culminate her thoughts, and instead argues for pages without identifiably culminating evidence for a conclusion. Evidence used tends to be quantitative or rather general, and only in the latter half of the essay do any attempts at using contemporary qualitative sources occur. In all Roberts uses comprehensive evidence that ranges from the contemporary quotes to modern historiography, however more critique of sources, and her own ideas, could be used to round off the argument. The aim of the article is as examined, to examine the perceptions of Huguenots and conspiracy theories of the sixteenth century, which Roberts uses to argue that the Huguenots were persecuted despite their professions of loyalty. The importance of religion as a factor of difference is shown in the article, and the influence of misfortune upon how a minority is observed, Roberts does well to ensure that the reader understands the situation of the Huguenots of France, as well as the causes of persecution and the alleged conspiracy theories. Overall while the article remains focused upon its subject, more effort could be made to ensure the clarity of the overarching narrative, whilst context into the earlier appearance of the Huguenots could have been useful to ensure a grounded reading.

     
  4. Book Review: Unclean Spirits: Possession and exorcism in France and England in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries by D. P. Walker
    The 116 page long work 'Unclean Spirits: Possession and exorcism in France and England in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries' by D. P. Walker, appeared in 1981 and is a collection of his lectures at the University College London. In this rather short, but thoroughly referenced book, Walker examines various cases of possession in both France and England during the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. He starts with a short contextual introduction, explaining problems arising from the study of the demoniacal/diabolical possession. These include the purpose of possession, the purpose of exorcism and finally alleged and probable causes of such possession. Having done this, the book dives right into case-studies of the sixteenth century.
    The first, the case of Nicole Obry (also known as “the Miracle of Laon”), occurred in 1566 and became one of the most famous and ground setting cases due to its wide publication. The second case covers “the demoniacs of Soissons” exorcised in 1582, and finally the case of Marthe Brossier, revealed as a fraud in 1599.
    In England, Professor Walker analyses the Recusant exorcisms of Denham (1585-1586), the case of the “bewitched” Protestant Throckmorton children (1589-1593), which ended with the execution of the Samuel family charged with witchcraft. He then deals with various exorcisms performed by the Puritan minister John Darrel, starting with the exorcism of Thomas Darling (1596) and terminating with Darrel's conviction on the charge of fraudulence (1599).
    After some brief remarks about the cases mentioned, Walker looks at instances of possession in the early seventeenth century, starting with those of Louise Gapeau in France and finishing with those of Mary Glover and Smythe in England.
    He draws several conclusions from his case by case analysis. Firstly, he argues that exorcisms were used as religious propaganda: Catholics in France and England sought to clear the real presence and ecclesiastical magic of blame, while Protestant cures in England served to criticize Roman Catholicism. Secondly, Walker establishes a link between possession and witchcraft in sixteenth- and seventeenth-century England and in seventeenth-century France. Thirdly, the evidence advanced by Walker consolidates the notion that the publicity given to the cases and trials of sorcerers/witches created a sense of skepticism about diabolical possessions. Finally, Walker focuses on the idea of a “good” or “angelic” possession, as opposed to the devil's intervention.
    Concerning the decline of belief in witchcraft and possesion in England, Walker argues that it is the mainstream Anglicans rather than the so-called Puritans who bear a major responsibility for the triumph of scientific thought over superstition. Moreover he puts forth the interesting idea that, since possession so often occurred in women, once it was acceptable for women to become preachers in various Protestant sects, the number of possessions began to decline. With respect to France, he demonstrates the religio-political uses of exorcism in the counter-reformation efforts to stamp out the Huguenots.
    D. P. Walker's book is a very insightful piece of work which is claimed to be a "trail-blazer" on a limited subject. Yet, there are some issues regarding his work. Walker does add a considerable amount of information on the cases mentioned, but he does not really interlink them. The cases are looked at individually, and whilst the connection between witchcraft and possessions in France and England is pointed out, it is not explored in enough depth. In short, the book lacks a clear structure, which could have been avoided by taking a more topical approach.
    Another problem that appears to be quite obvious, is the scholarly level, and as such the usefulness of Walker's work. It is meant to be an introductory paper, but the level of this work is such that only quite a limited amount of people could read it, without having to make their own research beforehand in order to understand it. Anyone teaching below the upper levels of the university will not find it useful for students.
    Nevertheless, by assembling these histories of demoniacs/possessed and giving his consequent analysis in this brief introductory work, Professor Walker has drawn attention to a – then (1981) – unknown topic.

     
  5. Book Review - Rolf Schulte, Man as Witch: Male Witches in Central Europe, (2009)

    The book opens in 1615 with the trial of Peter Kleikamp in Münster, Germany. Initially charged with theft and sodomy, the prosecution changes its accusations to witchcraft and lycanthropy based on circumstantial evidence. The court sees Kleikamp as a follower of the devil intent on secretly undermining Christian society. What is unique about this story is that the sheep that Kleikamp is accused of eating whilst guised as a werewolf do not appear to have actually existed, no witness came forward to claim the sheep as their own. The book goes on to consider how the werewolf phenomenon might be a male version of the female witch stereotype.


    Schulte’s arguments reflect Oldridge’s view of lycanthopes as malign creatures taking pleasure in causing harm. This is most evident in the second chapter entitled The Persecution of Men as Werewolves in Burgundy which focuses on sixteenth century confessions of supposed werewolves. It is of note that in this chapter, one of the trials focuses on ‘packs of werewolves’, which is somewhat unique to this case. On other hand, it could simply be the accused attempting to alleviate blame by distributing responsibility to others.


    The strengths of the book lie in its narrow approach to the topic allowing Schulte to focus on specific events and regions. Avoiding a broad discussion and generalisation, the book goes into rich detail about lycanthropy and witchcraft in individual trials. The way that Schulte introduces a trial before analysing the significance and historiography of the case is particular interesting and makes the book much easier to read. Another strength of the book is the use of primary sources in the form of illustrations of woodcuts. These illustrations are used to support Schulte’s arguments and to highlight how werewolves were interpreted through images during the early modern period. A further success of the book was the use of graphs to emphasise and analyse trends in the persecution of werewolves and witches.


    The book suffers from a couple of minor weaknesses as a result of the translation of the writing from German into English. The translation can lead to somewhat confusing sentences at times as Schulte goes into detail about specific trials. In some instances, the detail of the trials is actually unnecessary as an overview would suffice and would be far easier to read as oppose to trawling through legal hearsay and circumstantial evidence. There are also times when Schulte switches from one trial to a previous trial without notice to the reader, making parts of the book difficult to follow. On balance however, these weaknesses do not detract from the overall strength of the book.


    The work is successful in advancing the debate not only on the persecution of werewolves in pre-modern society but also in highlighting the persecution of males as witches during the period. This is an area that early modern literature often fails to cover sufficiently thus Schulte finds a niche topic to write about. The book is careful not to ignore the female aspect of witchcraft but uses it as a reference point to male witchcraft and how this initially developed into accusations of lycanthropy. As such, the work is relevant to any study of witchcraft and werewolves not merely those focused on male witchcraft during the period.

     
  6. Book Review - Rolf Schulte, Man as Witch: Male Witches in Central Europe, (2009)

    W. de Blecourt, 'A Journey to Hell: Reconsidering the Livonian "Werewolf"', Magic, Ritual and Witchcraft, 2 (2007), 49-67

    Main Argument and Structure : 
    Through considering the Livonian Werewolf, Blecourt rgues for a more precise reading of trial records on werewolves. 

    The Article begins with an account of the sentencing of Thiess of Kaltenbrun, more commonly referred to as 'The Livonian Werewolf', who was put on trial for heresy, after claiming to venture into hell as a werewolf. In the subsequent analysis of Werewolves, Blecourt focusers on the influential historiographical analysis of the Thies case, particuarly critiquing Ginzburgs account of Thues's shamanastic activities. There is then an examination of older conceptions of ritual societies, and their place within more current literature on the subject. The author then proceeds to argue that extensive analysus of these two points of view have upsurped the study on the case itself (of werewolf trials), and so he seeks to utilise regional evidence on werewolves and rituals.

    Who was 'the Livonian Werewolf'?

    Thies of Kaltenbrun, was a livonian man put on trial for heresy in Jurgensburg, Swedish Livonia, in 1692. This is due to him proclaiming to being a werewolf, alleging that he ventured into Hell 3 times a year with other werewolves to battle devils and witches 'during the night of Pentecost, on Midsummer's Night, and on St Lucia's Night' (Original trial record, 1691). He was tried on an account of heresy and sentenced to being bludgeoned to death.

    Relation to other histiography

    Blecourt effectively offers a new interpretation. While summarising the two groups of historiography on the subject (Ginzburg and the older conceptions), he argues for more appreciation to be taken of more regional evidence, which supports the idea of a 'history from below'. This is particuarly due to much previous analysis, including Ginzburg's, relying solely on the version of the interrogation published by Austrian National Socialist Otto Hofler. This, the author argues, provides a misrepresentation of the case.

    Strengths

    He provides an effective critique of Ginzburgs theory, which framed Thies as a shamanist, emphasising that it is 'not as clear-cut as Ginzburg and his acolytes suggest' 1. A 'shaman' is a 'magical expert, comparable to a "medium", a "witch doctor" or a "spiritual healer", yet differemt from them because of the techniques used to: going into a trance and undertaking a journey to an alternate world.  Blecourt questions this relation to a 'shaman' on the basis that shaman were not seen to enter into 'metamorphosis' e.g. change shape/form/being. Furthermore, he correctly emphasises that Ginzbergs comparison between shamanists and the trials in Switzerland and Thies overlook the fact that references to wolves are only metaphorical in these instances. 

    Limitations

    Due to the shortness of the text, Blecourt is unable to expand thoroughly into regional based evidence and doesn't offer any detailed analysis of comparative cases of werewolf trials, which would perhaps help to validate his claim for a reassessment of this particular case.

     

     
  7. Philip C. Almond, Demonic Possession and Exorcism in Early Modern England (Cambridge University Press, 2004)

    Almond's book looks at several cases of possession and exorcism in pre-modern England across a range of ages, areas and genders. Several of these cases also look at the connection between witchcraft and possession and how that affected the treatment of the victim/the accused (depending on the case). I l focused on Chapter 1 of this book: 'Disfigured by the Devil: The story of Alexander Nyndge.

    • This case occurred in January 1573 but there was a second version of the case written in 1615. 
    • Nyndge's possession was identified by 'transformations' of the body, for example: the swelling of the chest and head, a lump running underneath his skin. There was also certain behaviour which identified Nyndge as being possessed, such as, a refusal to eat, incoherent mumbling and screeching and bashing his head against objects. It was both of these kinds of symptoms which led his brother to conclude that he was possessed by a demonic spirit. 
    • Almond points out but does not develop on the role of possessed in telling their own history. He argues briefly that Alexander becomes reduced to a role of someone possessed by the Devil; often appearing as a moral warning against sinfulness and straying from piety. Nyndge's brother believed that the possession was caused by God rather than a witch. Therefore, it was a sign of Nyndge's sinfulness and that the possession was a form of correction sent by God. This means that while Nyndge is a victim of possession, he is a victim of a righteousness punishment brought about by his own actions and beliefs. 
    • In the later text of the story of Alexander Nyndge, there is greater emphasis on the possession and the ritual of being cured.
    • Importantly, diagnosis of possession over madness appears to have been favourable during the Early Modern period. This is because possession was widely believed to be curable through prayer and exorcism while madness was often seen as incurable. 
     
  8. Philip C. Almond, Demonic Possession and Exorcism in Early Modern England (Cambridge University Press, 2004)

    Philip Almond’s ‘Demonic Possession and Exorcism in Early Modern England: Contemporary Texts and Cultural Contexts’ is an attempt to bring together a number of contemporary documents to both make them more accessible, and also strengthen Almond’s argument regarding the cultural prerequisites for possession and exorcism. Almond divides his work into the nine different primary pieces, with each one translated into a more modern form of English, and complete with a short introduction written by Almond himself. The sources used for this work, therefore, are mainly primary texts, with some secondary pieces included to help Almond put forward his overarching argument and position himself within the wider historiographical field.
    The argument made by Almond is focused upon the cultural origins of possession beliefs and exorcism practices, with Almond asserting that exorcism was a form of cultural theatre. There are a number of questions raised by this text, however, as despite Almond’s initial assertion of his argument, the commentary which accompanies the sources is often extremely short. This means that despite the large amount of primary source material, Almond’s argument is not fully developed throughout the text, leaving it somewhat unconvincing.
    Despite this, the text is a useful compilation of primary material which gives the reader valuable insight into the human aspect of possession and exorcism within the Early Modern period, and Almond’s short commentary does allow for considerable reader interpretation of the featured sources. The sources have been modernised in language and punctuation for Almond’s text, however, and this calls into question the authenticity of this process of translation as it becomes impossible to directly quote Almond’s translations due to the potential for error, particularly as Almond himself admits the difficulties faced during this process.
    Demonic Possession and Exorcism in Early Modern England also adds to the wider historiographical field of studies concerning possession and exorcism, with Almond himself stating that his work was intended to build upon that of Daniel Walker. Whilst Walker focuses on both England and France, Almond’s work places possession in an English cultural context and seeks to provide examples of English cases. Whilst he is not directly following Walker’s study, Almond’s work does succeed in developing it as it adds more scholarly discussion to the topic and broadens the available literature. Also, Almond’s argument which labels exorcism as ‘cultural theatre’ makes significant assumptions about possession and its implausibility. This fuels the sceptical side of the historiographical debate concerning exorcism, and is in direct conflict with other works, such as that of Sarah Ferber, which make less sweeping conclusions regarding supernatural belief. Ultimately, therefore, whilst Almond’s work does have significant weaknesses, it contributes positively to a number of historiographical areas, as well as providing a large amount of contemporary material for reader interpretation.

     
  9. Philip C. Almond, Demonic Possession and Exorcism in Early Modern England (Cambridge University Press, 2004)

    Demonic Possession and Exorcism in Early Modern England is a compilation of several primary accounts of cases of demonic possession. Philip Almond gives a very detailed introduction where he discusses popular signs of the devil, the effect of Protestantism on belief in demonic possession, the difference between devils and witches, typical profiles of the possessed and cases of fraud involving the devil. In giving this outline, he uses evidence from the primary accounts which follow to corroborate the arguments he makes. The introduction is followed by the nine cases of demonic possession with a brief commentary before each one by Almond.

    Almond’s book is useful as it provides numerous, easily accessible examples of demonic possession in early modern England. Almond’s commentaries on individual cases are also very useful as they provide background information on the accounts and their writers. For example, the author of the William Perry trial was Richard Baddeley who aimed to expose the fraud of the Catholic priests. Therefore, such information makes it easier for the reader to assess the reliability of accounts which can be difficult when there is often a lack of information on the authors of such sources. Therefore, this book is a very useful point of reference when looking for primary evidence to use in a historical argument.

    However, there are some weaknesses in Almond’s work. Almond focuses on cases of demonic possession in early modern England alone. Therefore, the geographical area which the book explores is very specific. Although it is difficult to tackle all evidence across all places, Almond could have included cases from some other parts of the world to give a more extensive view of European attitudes towards the possessed. Furthermore, although this is a very minor weakness, Almond focuses too heavily on the primary accounts in the introduction; he provides so many examples from individual cases that it is easy to lose sight of his original point. Given that the full accounts follow, this is unnecessary and simply makes the book harder to read.

    This book is very useful in providing primary evidence to corroborate arguments and in outlining key facts about demonic possession. However, Almond has not made any new arguments, but has simply gathered evidence. Therefore, this book does not make any new arguments on demonic possession. Nonetheless, it is still a relevant and useful book for those studying demonic possession.

     
  10. Willem de Blecourt, 'A Journey to Hell: Reconsidering the Livonian “Werewolf”', Magic, Ritual, and Witchcraft, 1(2007), pp.49-67

     

    This article examines the relevant historiography on the Thies case in modern day Latvia and suggests new lines of enquiry for analysing cases of werewolves. It begins by giving a brief narrative of the events which constitute the Thies case and quickly moves onto Gintzburg's interpretation of the events which de Blecourt demonstrates have been most influential in the historiography. The author then compares this established view to that of regional cases and interpretations, through this comparison the author is able to critique Gintzburg's approach finding instead that a more cautious approach in defining whether cases were concerned with werewolves or shamanistic acts. Finally, the author makes a plea for a more precise and indigenous reading of trial records for werewolves so that cases are read within a narrow contextual focus in order to avoid the mistakes of Gintzburg shown throughout the text by de Belcourt.
    As this text is largely formed as a critique of the dominant historiography in this field it is rather easy to identify this author as an advocate for a narrow and localised approach rather than generalised views which may otherwise provide an overarching approach if one is to exist; although this author evidently does not believe very strongly that such a thing does. The author arrives at this view using the main texts as he sees of this field of study. As has been stated, Gintzburg forms a great part of article but this is used alongside others from a range of European regions and states. This allows the author to construct a convincing argument that regional differences and expectations need to be taken into account when looking at such cases of werewolves. The lack of primary sources is to be expected as the focus of this text is concerned with the historiography rather than detailed exploration of events, however the article is enhanced by some references to specific cases, however these are taken from secondary works.
    The strengths of this text are that it has a very good and useful focus on the development of language and more specifically labels which are attributed, in some cases quite wrongly in the authors opinion, to cases of werewolves. The author's argument here is that cases which do not actually involve werewolves have been used in works on that topic and as such skew the debate. In addition to this the approach which de Blecourt advocates would result in a deep understanding of specific cases and their relation to their immediate context, again this is an attempt to avoid the possibility of anachronistic labelling. Conversely, this approach may hold back more general explorations which may benefit wider themes of persecution, superstition, and popular attitudes to werewolves and other such phenomena. A further weakness of this article is that there is an over reliance on the work of Gintzburg, although the author does show that Gintzburg's work is inflluential it would surely benefit the article to explore other approaches which have also been major contributors to this field. Overall this article is likely to further debate into more regional explorations of werewolf phenomena and more generally it asks questions of to what extent the historian is able to generalise more specific work while retaining the importance of its context.

     
  11. M. Goodich, 'Sexuality, Family and the Supernatural in the Fourteenth Century', Journal of the History of Sexuality, 4 (1994), 493-516

    ‘Sexuality, family and the supernatural in the Fourteenth Century’ explores the historiographical sources of the Middle ages and details division into two parts: 

    Vita: chronicling the saints ministry and meritorious virtues. These chronicles were often written by an experienced theologian who had mastered the ‘art’ of sacred biography. Under the watch of the papal, these works were heavily influenced in order to insure the veneration of a ‘truly deserving person’.
    Miracula: less exploited as a source for social history due to the problematic nature of the multiple and scarcely believable reports. Similarly to the vita, reports of the Miracula were recorded by notaries or clerics (deemed reliable) for such documentation of detailed notes, included its nature, eyewitnesses and circumstances of the of the event.
    Goodich explores the Miracula, illuminating its heavy influence on society and Catholic Theology. It provided the truth of Christianity against the doubts of infidels, heretics, jews etc.
    hose who experienced or witnessed a miracle often formed a community of faith as the adherents of a particular cult, hosting various confraternities such as feast days.
    Excluded Minority/ heretic groups might be readmitted as a result of the miracle bestowed upon them thus becoming a vehicle for readmission into the community of the baptised faithful.
    The example of shame and sexuality being cured by the miracle in the case of two parents who were concerned to insure that their offspring conform at the earliest age to the strictures of the Christian sexual ethic.
    The purity of marriage: large driving force behind medieval social life thus the violation of sexual and familial code was amenable to religious and even supernatural intervention.
    Goodich expands on the importance of Judicial reports in the development of the Miracula as a tool for social order.
    importance of collective ideals and traditional communal behaviour helping to maintain the fabric of society in a state of equilibrium. The prominence of the miracula within societies
    unexploited evidence concerning the continuing belief in the efficacy of supernatural intervention in pursuit of the Christian goals of monogamy, purity, procreation, peace and order within the family. Patron saints were resorted to as a means of restoring unity and imposing a moral consens thus avoiding loss of honor, public scandal and infamy.

    The use of primary and secondary sources, is illustrative of Goodich’s attempt to provide solid evidence towards his argument entailing the validity of the Miracle as a source of Historiography. Sources include: bible tales, tales and Judicial reports.

    Goodich’s book provides a clear and detailed insight into the Miracula and the it’s effectiveness as a Historiographical source. Evidence of it’s efficiency is drawn from Judicial reports, and tales in order to support it’s validity as a source. His commentaries on individual cases provide good background information into the origins of the Miracula and it’s effects within society. The argument formulated within this short but enlightening passage advocates the Miracula as a reliable historiographical source that is able to coincide with the validity of the Vita. It provides evidence in the form of many of the elements that characterize the medieval attitude towards sexuality. Goodich places emphasis on the conventions of medieval social life i.e. the Purity of Marriage and the familial code, guided by the Church and to those distorted: potentially fixed by the Miracula/Supernatural.

    Despite this, it can be argued that Goodich jumps too frequently from tale to tale or piece of evidence. It subsequently makes the article appear somewhat rushed and too fast paced. As a relatively short article with only 23 pages, it lacks flow. However, overall, it provides an interesting insight into the development and influence of the Miracula in the central middle ages.

     
  12. "A Woman under the influence": A case of alleged possession in Sixteenth Century France, Walker & Dickerman

    "Women under the influence" is a very detailed, close studied account of a women, Marthe, in 16th century France and her allegations of witchcraft of another women, resulting in her demonic possesion, and the imprisonment of the accused. The details of the case study are sourced from a letter the accused, Anne, had written to the Bishop of Paris, explaining her belief as to the reasons of Marthe's accusations and apparant possession. The other cited letter is from one of Anne's close friends. The text itself closely examines the letters and thoroughly explains Marthe's circumstance and historical context, which allow her alleged possessions to begin to make sense. We also see a highly enlightened account from Anne which is not sympathetic to Marthe but highly intellectual response, showing an understanding of her backgroud and neurosis (to the extent a 16th woman can). 

    The text is structured in a chronological manner, dissecting Marthe's life and circumstance. We are shown that as a third sister of a family with no available dowry she is unable to marry or join a convent, the only two viable social options for early modern women. Thus she becomes withdrawn and depressed. In seeking to reject herself as a woman she runs away, and disguises herself, which further brings shame upon herself and her family, thus the only way she can restore her honour is via a demonic possession, which garners her public sympathy rather than disdain. The text highlights her history throughout, which is useful as it serves to explain her belief in her possessions and also shows that the patriarchal nature of society forces many women to act this way. We also see losts of discussion on femininity and masculinity, as well as the nature of sin and finally public fascination with 'freaks' and the supernatural (shown via her father's decision to showcase her possessions in public). 

    The sources were all relevant and all strengthened her argument, of both the accuser and the accused being victims of an outside social pressure. Using Anne's letters legitimises her reasoning as we see a mirroring of the understanding of the immense pressure, guilt and confusion Marthe must have been under, in order to believe she was being possessed. We also see an account which describes Marthe's behaviour and appearance during an exorcism ;"her face turned black, her mouth gaped, her tongue protruded the length of four or five fingers, and her eyeballs rolled back hideously." Whether or not this truly happend it does highlight the convincing nature of her religious act, although this is undermined by the highest court in Paris declaring her a fake. 

    Overall, Walker and Dickerson have composed a very strong argument for the case of Marthe's victimisation. She is without a proper social position, due to her father and family, causing her depression. Her attempts to escape this cause even more shame and guilt. Her final chance to escape social condemnation, by practising possession leads to her being exposed and further humiliation. We also see the extent to which a patriarchal societal systems completely dominates and exploits Marthe; her problems are cause by men, then her solution is condoned by men, and then a mans orders further leads to her ultimate shame. The use of letters from the accused women showing understanding and acceptance allows us to comprehend the intricate nature of withcraft and possession accusations. 

     

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